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A temesvári vilajet (1552–1716). Emberek, intézmények, épületek

Author(s): Ferenc Csortán / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 12/2020

Present-day Banat, in the Middle Age Temesköz (between the Maros, Tisza, Danube rivers and the Carpathians), an area which had always several different ethnic, linguistic and relegious communities, belonged till 1552 to the Hungarian Kingdom, then to the Habsburg Empire. It is shared after 1918 between Romania, Serbia and Hungary. Between 1552-1716 it was part of the Ottoman Empire. The paper presents the society of this area in those years, soldiers and civilians, Muslims, Jews and Christians of different denominations, the Ottoman administration, the economic and cultural life, with a special focus on its main settlement, Timişoara.

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ABDULLÂH EL-KÂTİB VE TEZKİRE-İ RUMÂT ADLI ESERİ

Author(s): Saddam Bzour / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 69/2021

This work consists of the archery book "Tezkire-i Rumât", which is written by the Sheikh and archer Abdullah Al-khateeb who is also the author of the 17th century. Yet, five copies of this book were discovered. Moreover, many studies were conducted to define this book. In these studies information is introduced about the history of writing, the archers of that period and the content of the book. In this work, We could not find the lost copies, hence we did not review the missing copies of the book. This study compares the copy that has barcode number NEKTY2638 in Istanbul University to copy number 395 in Michigan University that was recently reproduced. This article discusses the content, copies, archery terms and the archery fields in the book. This book is considered as a historical document since it provides information about the archers who lived between the year of 1453 and 1689, the names of the cities and places, the challenges held during that period, the archery fields, the archery distances, the records achieved by the archers, the names of the wind that they used to hold archery sessions in, the ottoman archery and the archery terms. Moreover, this work studies linguistics, phonetics, spelling, the diverse structure and words that were not unused previously, as well as revealing the features of orthography as much as possible. Many examples are presented under those titles.

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About Us and Our Neighbours: History Textbooks in the Republic of Moldova, Romania and Ukraine

Author(s): Sergiu Musteaţă / Language(s): English

The principal research question pursued by this work is as follows: How do the Republic of Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine present one another in their history curricula and textbooks? How do the history textbooks of each of these three countries present the relationship between majorities and minorities?This book is thus focused on two main objectives: first, to generate improved understanding of the state of the discipline of history in these countries via discussion of reforms to and debates around history curricula in each country, and second, to shed light on the ways in which history textbooks in each of the three countries represent the other two and their peoples.Curriculum development and textbook production in all three countries still remain centralised. Textbooks are produced by state and private publishing houses. Most textbooks are curriculum-based and developed according to the guidelines issued by the Ministries of Education. Through their textbook publishing policy, these ministries control the content and quality of textbooks. History curricula and textbooks in all three countries have progressed, but we still encounter many problems. Among them are the following:• the content of curricula and history textbooks continues to place too much emphasis on national aspects to the detriment of the world, regional, and local dimensions of history;• it reflects the history of wars and violence instead of giving more space to periods of peaceful coexistence, cooperation and cultural communication, or of mutual enrichment between various social groups as well as between nations;• it neglects regional history and cultural and historical links with neighbouring countries;• as it stands, it causes problems in history education and the development of ethnic identity, as well as the relationship between “Us” and “Others”;• it leads to or accepts poor textbook design.The relationship between national and European history remains a closely debated topic in all three societies. Their shared reality, as evidenced by this study, is that all three countries are currently not presenting one another in any meaningful way in their history textbooks at all educational levels. In all three countries, history education and textbooks are dominated by political history and narratives of victimisation. National histories do not pay attention to their neighbours.History textbooks play an important part in the process of collective identity formation, building a relationship with the past and creating an image of the “other”. The content of textbooks determines, in many cases, students' attitudes to their neighbours. Therefore, in order to improve the situation in history education and to develop a tolerant approach to “others” in history textbooks, there is a great need for joint efforts by politicians, professionals and members of civil society in Moldova, Romania and Ukraine.

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ACTIVITATEA SPITALULUI DIN SULINA LA SFÂRŞITUL SECOLULUI XIX ŞI ÎNCEPUTUL SECOLULUI XX

Author(s): Ionuţ-Alexandru DRĂGHICI / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 13/2020

In the late XIXth century, Sulina Harbor was important through its strategic position. It was just a few hours away from Odessa and Constantinople, as well as a gateway to Europe. Therefore, it was a meeting point for both epidemic propagation and prevention policies. The European Commission of the Danube adopted a series of measures that gave a new dimension to public health at the mouths of the river. Combining social and medical models, these were based on the findings and regulations made by doctor Petrescu Hadji Stoica, chief doctor of the ECD Hospital in Sulina, and by Romanian authorities. Our study looks at the hospital’s activity from the end of the XIXth century up to World War One. In this period, it responded to the purpose for which it had been created, offering a growing number of consultations and diverse medical services. This prolific activity is presented in the extensive annual reports prepared by Dr. Stoica since 1890. His records also provided recommendations on improving public health at the mouths of the Danube. After the outbreak of WW1, the ECD experienced difficult times. Both navigation along the Lower Danube and the financial situation of the organization were affected. However, the hospital in Sulina remained busy, given that there were military operations in the region. This paper analyzes the ECD’s attempts to provide medical services to its employees and to local inhabitants. Our main source of information were the annual reports submitted by chief physician Petrescu H. Stoica. Together, the international organization and the Romanian authorities provided not only medical, but also social services, and a series of measures taken during the war gave a new dimension to public health in a strategic hub for the transportation infrastructure of the Danube and the Black Sea.

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Activities of the Consular Missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the First Years of the Austro-Hungarian Occupation 1878 – 1881

Author(s): Amila Kasumović / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2020

The system of capitulations was dominant from the 16th century in economic and political relations of the Ottoman Empire and the European countries. Capitulations had always emphasized the right of foreign consuls to execute consular jurisdiction in the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Since the Eyalet of Bosnia was an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, the consular jurisdiction of foreign consuls included that area, which had especially become significant in the 19th century when the leading European powers increasingly started to open their consulates in this part of the Empire. However, after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia in 1878, it aimed at terminating everything the capitulations contained regarding this area. The paper analyses the dynamics of termination of the consular jurisdiction of foreign consuls, the termination of the Austro-Hungarian consulates and the establishment of the new practice of appointment of foreign consuls in Bosnia and Herzegovina after 1878.The system of capitulations was dominant from the 16th century in economic and political relations of the Ottoman Empire and the European countries. Capitulations had always emphasized the right of foreign consuls to execute consular jurisdiction in the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Since the Eyalet of Bosnia was an integral part of the Ottoman Empire, the consular jurisdiction of foreign consuls included that area, which had especially become significant in the 19th century when the leading European powers increasingly started to open their consulates in this part of the Empire. However, after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia in 1878, it aimed at terminating everything the capitulations contained regarding this area. The paper analyses the dynamics of termination of the consular jurisdiction of foreign consuls, the termination of the Austro-Hungarian consulates and the establishment of the new practice of appointment of foreign consuls in Bosnia and Herzegovina after 1878.

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AHMET VEFİK PAŞA’NIN LEHÇE-İ OSMÂNÎ’SİNDE TANIMI BULUNMAYAN MADDELER ÜZERİNE

Author(s): Kaan Yilmaz,Ali Rıza TOSUN / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 33/2021

Lehçe-i Osmânî is considered the most important work of Ahmet Vefik Pasha. This work is regarded as the first example of our modern lexicography tradition. With its second edition, which was re-edited by its author, Lehçe-i Osmânî was constructed with a striking structure that divides the vocabulary of Ottoman Turkish into Arabic-Persian origin and non- Arabic-Persian. The handling of Turkish words as a headword in Ottoman lexicography started with Ahmet Vefik Pasha's Lehçe-i Osmânî. This work, which is the first in this respect, has become one of the main reference sources for Turkish scientists since the date it was written. In addition to these valuable features, Lehçe-i Osmânî also has some defects. The most important of these is that some head words are left undefined (very likely forgotten). Recep Toparlı (2000), who transferred the Lehçe-i Osmânî to Latin letters with a new order, stated that he determined the definitions of some of these items and added them to his study. But he stated that he did not include some items that he could not identify in his study. This study was primarily prepared to reveal the words and undefined items for which the definitions could not be determined by Toparlı. Some of the undefined words were defined by help of in-dictionary, some others outside from dictionary. These additions were given by their sources and testimonies. The items, whose definition still cannot be found, were brought to the attention of researchers who may be interested in the subject in the future.

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AJALET RUMELIJA (POPIS SANDŽAKA I GRADOVA NA POČETKU VLADAVINE SULEJMANA VELIČANSTVENOG)

Author(s): Tayyib Gökbilgin / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 16-17/1970

Prikazujući zemlje Rumelije, Katiib Celebi (Hadži Kalfa) u svojoj kosmografiji Džihanniima (Kosmorama) dijeli Rumsku klimu (Iklim-i Rüm = područje Vizantije) na dva dijela, i to na Romaniju i Anadoliju i kaže da je područje koje leži zapadno i sjeverno od Carigradskog moreuza, koji on naziva Carigradski zaliv (Halic-i Konstanitiniyye = Zlatni rog) za vrijeme (turskog) osvajanja toga područja postalo poznato pod nazivom Rumelija (Rum-ili). Kao što se taj naziv od početka (turskog osvajanja) upotrebljavao kao naziv jednog geografskog područja, on je isto tako u administrativnoj podijeli označavao jednu upravnu jedinicu koja je tokom širenja (turske vlasti) sve više rasla.

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ALBANSKA ALJAMIADO KNJIŽEVNOST

Author(s): Hasan Kaleši / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 16-17/1970

Gleichzeitig mit dem Prozess der Islamlsierung der Albaner, welcher im XV Jahrhundert begann, begint auch fein starker Durchbruch der Albaner in die türkische militärische und administrative Hierarchie. Beginnend von Gedik Ahmed-Pascha, einem der berüm-testen Eroberer aus der Periöde des Mehmeds II Fatih. bis Avlonali Ferid Pascha, welcher der Gross-Wesier im Jahre 1905 war, begegnen wir einer grossen Zahl von Gross-Wesieren, Ihrer Stellvertreter, von Beglerbegs, Sandschakbegs, verschiedenen Kommandanten und anderen Würdenträgern albanischer Abstammung. Auch ein Durchbruch der Albaner in die türkische Literatur ist zu erwähnen. Anfangend von Süzi aus Prizren und Mesihi aus Prischtina, dann über dem 'Masischen Dichter Dukaginzade Yahya-bey, »den türirischen Montesqueiu« Kocibey, den ersten Rektor der Istanbul Universität Hodscha Tahsin, den grössten türkischen Lexikographen und Enzyklopädisten Semseddin Sämi Frasery, den grössten türkischen Dieter und Autor der türkischen nationalen Hymne Mehmed Akif, und den grössten türkischen Philosophen Riza Teufik, war eine grosse Zahl von Albanern welche ihren originellen Beitrag der türkischen Literatur gegeben hat.

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Almanya’nın Doğu Politikasında Balkanlar

Author(s): Suat Zeyrek,Hasan Hakan Ulutin / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 20/2020

Ottoman state had lost a large part of Balkans as a result of being powerless against Western imperial policies in the nineteenth century. Four states, three independent and one autonomous state, had been established in Balkans. It is seen that Western states were allied with each other in Balkan policy against Ottoman State. Nonetheless, there is a misperception in Turkish public opinion about Germany which was that the German friendship has constantly been emphasized. The negative influence of Germany in the developments before and during the Balkan wars and the military-political relations, have never been evaluated. Because right after the war, relations with Germany were increased to the highest level and military mission led by Liman von Sanders arrived in Istanbul in late 1913. This military mission prepared the Ottoman Empire to the upcoming World War I. Ottoman military officials were so much affected by Germany that they eagerly strived to enter the war. The purpose of the German military and political mission starting with Moltke and continuing with Von der Goltz, was to set up the German system in the army and to win an ally equipped with their own weapons. The aim of this study is to show that German adopted a Balkan policy ignoring Ottoman Empire. It is argued that Germany constantly played a double game against Ottoman Empire. The paper shows the role Germany played in losing Balkans.

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Ambrogio Contarini i jego podróż na Wschód. Okoliczności nawiązania kontaktów dyplomatycznych przez Wenecję i Polskę z Persją w drugiej połowie XV wieku.

Author(s): Janusz Smołucha / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 2/2017

The article discusses the little-known (in historiography) history of diplomatic relations between Christian Europe and Uzun Hassan (1423–1478), the ruler of Persia. The capital of the country was located in Tabriz, currently in north-western Iran. Uzun Hassan provided military support to Ottoman Turkey’s enemies and sought to establish diplomatic relations with Christian states. The author briefly describes the history of Persia’s diplomatic missions, which were usually aimed at Venice and Rome. In 1472, one of them also visited Krakow, the capital of the Kingdom of Poland. Aside from brief references in contemporary chronicles and diplomatic and diplomatic documents, we know little about details of those first political contacts with Persia. The main part of the article refers to an exceptionally well-documented, in terms of sources, journey of Venetian envoy Ambrogio Contarini to Uzun Hassan’s court in Tabriz. He embarked on the diplomatic mission from Venice in February 1474. As Turks at that time were blocking the crossing from Cyprus to Asia Minor, the Venetian envoy decided to travel by land across Germany, the Kingdom of Poland and Ruthenia. His descriptions of obscure regions at Dnieper, including in Kiev itself, are extremely valuable. He also gave a detailed account of his adventurous journey to Caffa on the shore of the Dead Sea. From there, bypassing the Turkish territory and the mountains of the Caucasus, avoiding many dangers, Contarini made it to Persia.

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An Essay on Economic Values of Akhism

Author(s): Agim Mamuti / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2013

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the Akhism with the special reference to its economic aspects. Akhism was effectively functioning from the end of the Seljuk to the late Ottoman period. Akhism, with some modifications, played an important role in the establishment of an effective economic and social structure, by bringing together socio-economic factors such as ethics, production and trade. Then, Akhism succeeded in creating an effective and reliable network of relationships between citizen and state, rich and poor, producer and consumer and labor and capital. Akhism also established the working and corporate principles based on morality and social justice. Akhiis is an Arabic word which is defined as a “brother” (Akca, 2004, 356). In another source it is stated that this word is derived from Akı which means in Turkish language bravery, heroism and generosity (Bayram, 1991, 131). The brotherhood culture prevalent in Akhism has also been effective in the formation of social order and spreading of tolerance and understanding in the society. Akhism institution and tradition has been influential in economical, financial, social and cultural aspects of life. In the past and even today it has been dominant in organizing craftsmen and artists and in integrating them in a definite system and order.

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Ankara Vilayetinde Yolsuzluk ve Kaçakçılık Üzerine Bazı Tespitler (1908-1918)

Author(s): Erciment Sarıay / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 1/2020

In the historical process, as in every state, some corruption incidents have been witnessed in the Ottoman Empire. The state has always made some legal arrangementsto prevent corruption. In particular, the regulations made during the Tanzimat and Constitutional Monarchy periods are extremely important in terms of preventing corruption. However, these regulations could not prevent the incidents that damage public and social morality such as corruption, bribery, malversation, and perpetration. Another fact that harms the public order is smuggling. Although smuggling is common in coastal areas throughout the country, upcountry areas also affected by this. Ankara province, which has an important position within the Anatolian transportation network, has become one of the transition routes of smuggling. In this respect, in the province, although not very common, cases of smuggling have been witnessed, especially tobacco smuggling. However, it can be said that Ankara is also a market in terms of marketing and consumption of smuggled tobacco in the examined period. The fact of corruption and smuggling, which is a result of economic, social and moral decay, is one of the important problems for maintaining a healthy public order both in the center and in the rural during the dissolution process of the Ottoman Empire. These problems have been also seen occasionally in Ankara province and affected social peace negatively. The theoretical framework of this study, which examines the reflections of corruption and smuggling cases on Ankara province, has been built on the concepts of corruption, bribery, malversation, smuggling (especially tobacco smuggling). The main purpose of this study is to reveal the incidents of corruption and smuggling in the province of Ankara, the attitudes of the central government and the local government on thisissue and how the society is affected in the light of archive documents. This study evaluates the smuggling activities in Ankara, Aydin, and Trabzon provincesin general. However, no comparison was made for the corruptionsin Aydin and Trabzon provinces as there wasn’t sufficient data.

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Antal Molnár, Confessionalization on the Frontier. The Balkan Catholics between Roman Reform and Ottoman Reality

Author(s): Zlatko Kudelić / Language(s): Croatian / Issue: 58/2020

Book-Review: Antal Molnár, Confessionalization on the Frontier. The Balkan Catholics between Roman Reform and Ottoman Reality, Roma: Viella, 2019, 268 stranica. Review by Zlatko Kudelić.

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ARAPSKI JEZIK U KULTURNOM IDENTITETU EVROPE

Author(s): Zehra Alispahić / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 87/2021

Great Islamic conquests of the seventh century opened up new horizons towards the East as well as towards the West for the Arabic language, as language of faith and science. Ever since the eighth century, Arabic language is in different ways and with varied levels of intensity, part of the European cultural identity. It was through Arabs and the Arabic language that Europe came in to contact with and was introduced to the heritage of ancient civilisations. Translations of major works from Greek to Arabic language as well as the other valuable and genuine commentaries by the translators, but also the original works written by the Arabic scientists have brought to Europe the spirit of scientific thought and research and created the space for European Renaissance which began with the meeting with the Arabs in Italy and Spain. Ottoman’s conquests brought the Arabic language to the Balkan Peninsula as well. It is estimated that there is 436.08 million Arabs in the world today. Arabs today live all around the world and the number of Arabs living outside the Arabic region is estimated 30 to 50 million. According to various statistical reports there are over 6 million Arabs living in Europe today. Statistics are changing on daily bases. The new geo-political trends in the world are, in various ways, bringing Europe in contact with Arabic language. New centres and departments for studies of Arabic language are being opened throughout Europe. The oldest surviving Semitic language should, although it is not officially yet, be recognised in the context of expected linguistic policies of European Union regarding the necessity of studying the languages of various language families within multicultural Europe and also in context of promoting differences and multicultural communications.

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ARBITRAJUL DE LA FOLIGNO DIN 1476: L’UNGARO O IL VALACHO?

Author(s): Alexandru Simon / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 57/2020

Since autumn 1475, the plague repeatedly ravaged Rome. Because of the renewed outbreak of the plague, in June 1476, Pope Sixtus IV left the city on the Tiber and took-up residence in Foligno, in Umbria. At that time, Sultan Mehmed II was about to enter Moldavia against the athlete of the Papacy, Stephen III the Great. The Ottoman campaign was a failure, for all combatants in effect. A 200,000 ducats crusader levy was agreed by most of the Italian states. The collection and the distribution of the sum led however to heated discussions between the ambassadors summoned to Sixtus IV' new residence, chiefly between those of Naples and of Venice. Ferdinand of Aragon, king of Naples wanted the entire subsidy to be sent to Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, his son-in law to be. The Republic of Venice demanded the disputed sum for her Eastern favourite, Stephen. Apparently more preoccupied by the purity of the air, Sixtus delegate the highly delicate matter to Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, the son of Ludovico III il Turco, margrave of Mantua. In the end, both Matthias (the Hungarian) and Stephen (the Romanian) came out empty-handed from this affair

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Armageddon Yolun Sonu, Yıldırım Orduları Kuzey Filistin’i Nasıl Terk Etti?

Author(s): Tuncay Yılmazer / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 9/2021

The decisive defeat of the Ottoman Yıldırım Armies Group by the British forces in the First World War Palestinian Front in the Battle of Nablus and its aftermath have still been debated so far. In this study, before and after September 19, 1918, one of the darkest days in our history, has been examined generally and some questions were raised to be answered. One of the important questions is why did Liman von Sanders Pasha, Commander of the Yıldırım Armies Group await the main attack from the Jordan River's side instead of the Mediterranean coasts, despite the strong intelligence. It seems that the effective raids of the Northern Arab Army and Bedouin Forces started 3 days before the main attack on the strategic railway junction Deraa and its surrounding stations, (which are almost 75 km behind the front line) caused great concern to the Yıldırım general headquarters and enforced them to use their important reinforcements here. General Allenby, commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces, had already aimed to do so. The second important issue of discussion is that whether Mustafa Kemal Pasha's 7th Army left the front without notifying. However, when the battle was examined in detail, the 7th Army units deployed on a mountainous terrain fought with great devotion, let alone withdrawal, against the British. The decision of the 7th Army to abandon Nablus city was not a result of the developments on it's own front. In addition, Liman Pasha, who had not been on the Western front before and could not follow the tactical developments, adopted the straight line defense instead of flexible defense. It was one of the main reasons that led to the defeat. Being late for checking of the two bridges over River Jordan would have caused the destruction of the 7th Army Undoubtedly; Although defeats has not been desired to remember in popular culture, they actually contain many lessons for the future. As in the Nablus tragedy, they are instrumental in keeping the memories of those who strive and struggle not to be captured even in desperate moments.

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ARSAL’DAN AYDA’YA: TÜRK-TATAR İDEALİ’NİN TÜRKİYE CUMHURİYETİNE KATKISI

Author(s): Elif Hatun Önal-Kiliçbeyli / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 47/2020

Geography and human beings can not physically act together,but human and geographical elements can act by turning into cultures.It is valuable that the ‘Turkish-Tatar’ idea/recapitulate,which developed in the 19th century in European Russia, which was thousands of kilometers away from the Ottoman Empire, with a person born in Idil-Ural Region, reached the ideal of realization in an independent and sovereign nation state on the Ottoman lands in the 20th century and came to life in the Anatolian geography. Sadri Maksudi Arsal was invited by Atatürk to Republic of Turkey and received to citizenship of Turkey with his family. He supported with all its might and conduced for constructing to Turkish History Association, Turkish Language Association as a ‘Turkish-Tatar’oriented. Not only S.M. Arsal, but also Turkish-Tatar intellectuals lived in the Idil-Ural region are also supported to institutialism in a Nation-State of Turkish Republic. A.Ayda’s principles of truth and accuracy, which adopt ‘Ethics’ as the basic principle of life and come with the effect of genetic transfer set an example to the Turkish scientific world, Turkish Diplomatic life as a ‘Modern Turkish Woman’. This article includes the social interaction and sampling of the political structure, which has been handled with Max Weber’s concepts of ‘Ideal Type - Rational Action’ within the framework of social change theories.

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Azak Kalesi’nin İşgali ve İstirdadı (1637-1642)

Author(s): Ümran KARADENİZ,Alpay Bizbirlik / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 27/2020

Azov Fortress, which came under the Ottoman rule in 1475, was the farthest point of the north-eastern border of the Ottoman lands. The fortress, which is located in the border area, was mostly used as an outpost, military support unit and supply base since it was not subjected to serious attacks in the first years. The Azov was subjected to sieges in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. However, for the first time in 1637, as a result of the serious siege of the Don Cossacks, it was out of the Ottoman’s control. It is has a special place in Russian history that the Don Cossacks occupied and held Azov fora long time because it was a victory against the Ottoman Empire which was the great power of its era.There are many studies on this subject in Russian literature. While there are very few documents in the Ottoman archive, Evliya Celebi gives the most detailed information among chronicles and travel books.In addition, this period was neglected in the studies and research, and only recently, a study was conducted by Sinan Yüksel in terms of political history. In this respect, it is thought to be useful to discuss the subject in detail due to the existing gap in the literature. In this study, the Don Cossacks’ capture of Azov and the struggles between the Ottoman soldiers and the Don Cossacks during the Don Cossacks’ domination, will be discussed in detail by means of military terms. Besides, the reasons why the Ottoman Empire failed in Azov during this period will be examined.

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Banaz Çeşmelerinin Uşak Çeşme Mimarisi İçerisindeki Yeri ve Korunma Durumları

Author(s): Türkan Acar / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 03/2020

Fountains are the last point where water is found among the communities in the front row among the primary life sources of people with its functional characteristics. With this important situation, the social fabric they create around the fountains creates a dominant influence on their unquestionable value. The fountains were built in different geographies, with different architectural creations and with different plans and facade features, being preferred in every period. Our work contains the plan, architecture and decorative features of the twenty-eight fountains, dating from the last period of the Ottoman period according to the inscriptions and architectural details, located in the Banaz district of Uşak province. The aim is to document and publicize these structures which are primarily open to natural or human destruction. In this context, each one of the works determined has been shot, taken detailed measurements and drawings drawn and have been taken their GPS values. Fountains were introduced with plan and mass edifices, and their places in Uşak fountains were typologically discussed.

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BATILAŞMA DÖNEMİNDE İSTANBULİSTANBUL’DA RUM CEMAATİNİN EĞİTİMİ

Author(s): Nikolaos LIAZOS / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 17/2021

The Imperial Decree of 1856 became the occasion for the reorganization of the millet, in the non-Muslim communities constituting the Ottoman society of the 19th century and reaffirmed their prerogatives. Communities were first invited to form assemblies to reorganize their internal affairs. The Greek communities of Istanbul could then rebuild new schools and repair the old buildings along with their churches and hospitals. At the same time, a major innovation of the Decree allowed the establishment of public science schools, ensuring that students have the right to attend higher education after elementary primary education. The conditions within the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire, especially after the Tanzimat (1839), Islahat (1856) reforming decrees and the sultan Abdulhamit II’s (1876) reform, have been proved to be appropriate for the advancement of a more modern education for Greek students in Istanbul.

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