Considérations syntaxico-sémantiques de l’utilisation du verbe gérer dans le français ivoirien

Author(s): Johnson Djoa Manda / Language(s): French Issue: 5/2013

The verb « gérer », as used by Ivorians, shows particular syntactic and semantic characteristics compared to those of standard French. To understand this phenomenon, we studied the discourse of three categories of French speakers: pupils and students, semiliterate and illiterate speakers, and finally administration officials and university teachers. The analysis of oral corpus revealed a misuse of the verb « gérer », where other concepts are expected. In fact, speakers act as if these terms of standard French fail to explicitly reflect the sensitivity and the Ivorian culture. But this discovery produces rather rich neologisms. They show the same time the vitality of French in the country when each French-speaking community is struggling to legitimize its own customary practices.

Veçori të arealit gjuhësor të istogut me rrethinë dhe disa toponime të kësaj ane, të shënuara në defterin e sanxhakut të Shkodrës të vitit 1485

Author(s): Sejdi Gashi / Language(s): Albanian Issue: 46/2016

The subdialect of Istog with the surroundings contains interesting material for inter-linguistic study and comparison, because, like other Albanian subdialects, by the passing of time and being in contact with Turkish, Serbian and other languages, had a borrowing relation with them. On the other hand, borrowings of Slavic and Turkish have provided opportunities for acquiring new lexical units, due to the presence of many word-forming tools, especially those suffixed. However, the impact of those languages in the phonetic, morphological, and syntax system of this language areal was not so strong. Collection of dialectic materials from Istog with the surroundings, their systematization and analysis is the evidence that enables the reconstruction of Albanian language history in these regions; therefore this task is of particular importance.

Statybos terminijos sinonimija

Author(s): Robertas Stunžinas / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 12/2005

This paper analyzes in structure, derivation, meaning and development aspects 1653 different lines of synonyms presented in three term dictionaries of building and civil engineering: 1992 Russian-Lithuanian term dictionary of building and civil engineering, 1993 English-Lithuanian term dictionary of building and civil engineering, 2002 Term dictionary of construction. Considering facts building and civil engineering terminology is characterized by a variety of synonymy. A small number of lines of synonyms in new term dictionary shows steadied synonymy. In respect of derivation of synonymous terms or synonymous components two big groups can be distinguished: heterogeneous synonymy, i. e. lines of synonyms of Lithuanian and borrowed terms and homogeneous synonymy, i. e. lines of synonyms of pure Lithuanian terms. According to structure, derivation and types of synonymy these two groups could be divided into 18 smaller groups. In heterogeneous synonymy three smaller groups dominate: lines of synonyms of single-word Lithuanian and international terms [en aerator - aeratorius, vėdintuvas ALSTŽ 8], lines of synonyms of complex terms with Lithuanian and hybrid components [ekvivalentinis storis, lygiavertis storis - en reduced thickness STŽ 586], mixed lines of heterogeneous complex terms and borrowed single-word terms [hidrantas, vandens kolonėlė - en hydrant RLSTŽ 57]. In lines of synonyms of single-word terms and complex terms borrowed terms are preferred [monolitiškumas, vientisumas (en solidity) RLSTŽ 462; nominalusis skersmuo, vardinis skersmuo - en nominal diameter STŽ 532]. In mixed lines of synonyms complex terms are preferred [drožlių betonas, fibrolitas - en wood fiber concrete STŽ 74]. Linguistically some synonyms are not equivalent [vibruojamasis tankinimas, vibravimas (en compaction by vibration) RLSTŽ 437]. Non-equivalence of synonyms could come from the broadness of borrowed terms, which can be covered by a few Lithuanian terms, and various possibilities of “synonymous” nomination [en freight elevator - krovininis liftas, keltuvas ALSTŽ 125]. During ten years heterogeneous synonymy of building and civil engineering has changed: in many cases in the new term dictionary it is possible to find only one synonym of earlier lines of synonyms [farvateris, laivakelis (en clearway) ALSTŽ 61 - laivakelis STŽ 300]. Furthermore, Lithuanian synonymy strengthened considerably and in many cases in the new term dictionary Lithuanian terms are preferred [konsolė, gembė (en cantilever) RLSTŽ 144 - gembė STŽ 166]. Many synonymous terms in the new dictionary are presented as separate terms [diskas, skridinys (en disc) RLSTŽ 75 - diskas STŽ 122, skridinys STŽ 543]. In homogeneous synonymy three smaller groups dominate: lines of synonyms of single-word terms [aidas, atgarsis - en echo STŽ 14], lines of synonyms of complex terms with synonymous subordinate components [pakopos plotis, laiptelio plotis - en tread width STŽ 430], mixed lines of synonyms of single-word and complex terms [kreivių braižiklis, braižytuvas - en plotter STŽ 81]. In single-word and complex term synonymy lexical synonyms dominate [en blister - burbulas, pūslė ALSTŽ 34], whereas derivative [greitintuvas, greitiklis (en accelerator) RLSTŽ 441] and grammatical synonyms [pramoninė statyba, pramonės statyba (en industrialized construction) RLSTŽ 405] are rather rare. Some derivative synonyms must be eliminated because of categorial polysemy [sunkimasis, sunktis - en percolation STŽ 596]. Typical grammatical synonyms are derivates with the suffix -tinis and the participle [klijuotoji sija, klijuotinė sija (en glueed girder) RLSTŽ 19]. Linguistically some homogeneous synonyms are not equivalent [en cooler - aušykla, aušinimo bokštas ALSTŽ 82]. Non equivalence of synonyms could come from the broadness of borrowed terms, which can be covered by several Lithuanian terms, and synonymy of other language equivalents [aukštuma, pakiluma - en hill, eminence STŽ 60]. During ten years homogeneous synonymy has changed: most synonyms of the earlier term dictionaries are absent in the new dictionary and in many cases the new term dictionary preferres only one term [en foreland - iškyšulys, ragas ALSTŽ 152 - iškyšulys STŽ 207].

Iš karybos terminų istorijos

Author(s): Vincentas Drotvinas / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 12/2005

A preliminary overview of the abundant material of military terms from the earlier period of the written Lithuanian language allows some general conclusions and a few specific conclusions to be drawn on the subject.Old military terms reach a distant past and reflect the wars of the Grand Duchy of Lithuanian and Prussia with other countries. Military men and weaponry were named using special terms, which were quite frequently coming Irom Western European languages.Military terms are of a different age: the oldest are inherited from Indo-European (karas (war)) and Baltic parent language (kalavijas (sword)), the newer ones are not only own, but also borrowed terms. Lithuanian terms make a smaller part. Slavonicisms are more frequent borrowings (talking of which, they are also more frequent in sources from Lithuania Minor, at least from the earlier period), Germanisms are slightly less frequent.The comparison of the meanings of old and currently used military terms obviously illustrates semantic changes: not one term (karininkas (officer), karžygys (warrior), pulkininkas (colonel)) has gained a new meaning.It is topical to continue the research of military terms. That would reveal not only their history, but probably it could make the origin, word-formation and meaning development of modern Lithuanian military terms clearer.

Epo, lyrikos, dramos žanrų ir kitų klasifikacijos vienetų pavadinimai pirmuose lietuviškuose literatūros teorijos vadovėliuose

Author(s): Asta Mitkevičienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 12/2005

This article investigates the origin, synonymy and some usage issues of names of epic, lyrics, drama genres, genre forms and kinds used in the first Lithuanian textbooks of literature theory. The material for this article was collected from all special works on the theory of literature published between two wars – Raštijos bei literatūros teorija (The Theory of Writing and Literature) (1918) and its third edition Literatūros teorija (The Theory of Literature) (1922) by K. Bizauskas, the textbook Stilistika (Stylistics) (1923 and 1927) by M. Gustaitis, three different editions of the textbook Literatūros teorija (pagrindiniai prozos ir poezijos dėsniai) (The Theory of Literature (The main laws of prose and poetry)) (1923, 1926, 1930) by J. Norkus, Prozos ir poezijos teorija (Theory of Prose and Poetry) (1925) by St. Češūnas, the fourth edition of the textbook Literatūros teorija. Poetika (The Theory of Literature. Poetics) (1938) by J. Ambrazevičius.Most of the names of epic, lyrics, drama genres and other classification units are of the foreign origin: there are two and a half times more international one-word terms than Lithuanian terms, complex terms of the mixed origin (Lithuanian and foreign origin) – make a bigger half of all complex terms and terms of the foreign origin make more than two fifths. Words of foreign origin are the elements of two-word terms one and a half times more frequently than Lithuanian words. Only three-word terms with the subordinate elements of the foreign origin are fewer than three-word terms with the subordinate elements of the Lithuanian origin.There is one feature of terms (both one-word and complex terms) in textbooks, published in the twenties of the 20th century, which was quite common at the time – variation. It was predetermined by not unified Lithuanisation of international terms or words of the foreign origin, which made the subordinate elements of complex terms.Like nowadays, two structural types of two-word terms prevail – terms with the suffix -inis and terms with a genitive of the noun.There are more synonym lines in all editions of the textbooks of literature theory than in one publication (usually there are two synonyms used in one publication). In some cases when changing synonymous terms not always the better way – the Lithuanisation – was chosen. The comparison of the synonym lines in the textbook by K. Bizauskas published in 1922 and in the work of J. Ambrazevičius dating 1938 shows that a number of synonyms was not decreasing.The first textbooks of theory of literature show some things important to the terminology of literature theory, for instance, a promiscuity in the usage of the names of epic prose genres, the usage of sakmė (saga, story) in the meaning of “pasakėčia” (fable), not hasty move from apsakymas (story) to novelė (novella), a differentiation of terms liaudiška daina and liaudies daina (folksong), a difficult way of the word atsiminimai (memoirs) into the terminology of the literature theory.

Iš etnonimų istorijos

Author(s): Vincentas Drotvinas / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 13/2006

This paper deals with a group of ethnonyms in the semantic field of the names of nationalities, taken from old Lithuanian writings (16-18th centuries). It discusses the origin of ethnonyms, their Lithuanisation and survival in the standard language.In respect of content, the ethnonyms discussed are names of European nationalities.According to origin, ethnonyms (except for the name of Lithuanians themselves) are part of the borrowed vocabulary of the Lithuanian language.The origin of ethnonyms differs: they are Baltic (lietuvis (Lithuanian), latvis (Latvian), prūsas (Prussian)), borrowings from the Old Slavonic (lenkas (Pole)), German language (Lith. vokietis, Lat. vācietis) or newer ethnonyms which came through intermediary languages.The majority of old ethnonyms have survived into modern Lithuanian.Some old borrowed ethnonyms became archaisms and were substituted with newer names (unguras – vengras (Hungarian), pinas – suomis (Finn), šatas – škotas (Scot)).The traditional inventory of old ethnonyms is constantly being complemented with new ethnonyms. This is a reflection of economic and cultural relations between Lithuania and other European and world nations.

Terminology work in Swedish way

Author(s): Anna-Lena Bucher / Language(s): English Issue: 14/2007

In my article I will present the language situation in Sweden and the Swedish centre of Terminology TNc, the „hub“ in Swedish terminology work for more than 65 years. Terminology work in Sweden is also performed in a systematic way by others: some public agencies and private companies handle their own terminology needs, but still in close contact with TNc. however, a new terminology market has evolved where other consultants than TNc are offering terminology services, and this will also be mentioned.

Kas esamybė, o kas reikiamybė – tikra ar formali

Author(s): Jonas Klimavičius / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 14/2007

Amongst matters of grammar which are important to special language, language of science and terminology there is the tricky issue of necessitive participles. The difficulty arises not from terminology, but from the grammar itself – a content of this category which flourished in the past, but did not survive in all dialects, lacks clarity of usage. Some formations do not any longer have the meaning of an action which should or must be done (or have it, but not in all collocations and it signifies – like the present passive participle – the possibility or even the property of continual action (būtinas, mirtinas, stebėtinas...)), but in addition they have very peculiar lexical meanings, which are distant from the categorial meaning (trūktinas – 1. „kuriam ko trūksta, nepakankamas“, 2. žem. „ne viso proto, kvailas“, pusėtinas – „vidutiniškas; gerokas, smarkokas“). Despite moving away from the category, such gerundives ought to be cherished, since they are an inherited treasure of the language, which ensures tradition. Logicality of terminology and relations of grammatical oppositions of microsystems do not allow a blind following of this root, for instance, a thing which should not be allowed, but is allowed only because of inevitability, is leidžiamasis, -oji (greitis, norma...), but not leistinasis, -oji. The opposite draudžiamasis, -oji (prohibitive) (veiksmas, medžiaga, ginklas...) keeps a tighter hold in terminology (every draudžiamas (prohibited) thing needs to be prohibited). In such cases a sense of grammar together with grammatical and logical thinking is very necessary for creators and users of terminology, editors and secondary users – journalists.

Profesoriaus Povilo Brazdžiūno Bendrosios fizikos vadovėlio (1960–1965) terminija

Author(s): Angelė Kaulakienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 14/2007

Bendroji fizika (General physics) by Povilas Brazdžiūnas was the second original textbook of physics for universities in four parts written in Lithuanian. It was published approximately forty years after the first Lithuanian textbook of physics for higher schools Fizikos paskaitos (Lectures on physics) by V. Čepinskis.The terminology of Bendroji fizika and Fizikos paskaitos consists not only of pure terms of physics, but also of general terms and terms of physics related to other fields of physical and technological sciences. In Bendroji fizika terms are terminologized common words, word formations and international terms.Among the word formations the most frequent are derivatives with suffixes -imas/ -ymas, -umas, -ybė, -inys, -iklis, -yklė, -tuvas, -alas and with endings -as and -is and compounds. Among the later more frequent are compounds with a verbal second element.The majority of international terms are of Latin or Greek origin or have come from Latin or Greek through English or French.In both textbooks Bendroji fizika and Fizikos paskaitos the majority of terms are two or three word complex terms, which could be separated into a few families of words according to their main element. In Bendroji fizika there are lots more of such families than in Fizikos paskaitos. The majority of complex terms from Bendroji fizika are still in use. This demonstrates how successful was the normalization performed by both the author and the editor of the textbook.All surnames of foreign scientists, which make subordinate elements of complex terms in Bendroji fizika have adapted forms with Lithuanian endings according to their approximate pronunciation. It can be concluded that foreign surnames in the language of science from the middle of the 20lh century have an adapted form according to the pronunciation.Sparing usage of synonyms and variants of simple or complex terms shows that the majority of terminology of Povilas Brazdžiūnas’ textbook was already normalized and became the basis for the subsequent terminographical publications of physics.

Iš lietuvių literatūros mokslo terminijos istorijos: XIX amžius

Author(s): Asta Mitkevičienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 14/2007

Literary science as an independent discipline in Lithuania began to develop at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, although literary works had been published before that. In the 19th century those works were published in Lithuanian and Lithuanian terminology of literary science began to be created. During the first half of the 19th century literary subjects were discussed in prefaces or other parts of different publications, but not in separate works. The number of literary works rose during the second half of the century when Lithuanian periodicals appeared and became more numerous. At the end of the 19th century the first history of Lithuanian literature (by J. Šliūpas), the first Lithuanian poetics (by V. Kudirka) appeared, and works on literary criticism were being published. This all determined the formation of Lithuanian literary terminology and its development. From the first literary works we can talk about semantic groups of terms, relations between terms. In the literary material of the 19th century basic literary terms (poezija ‘poetry’, proza ‘prose’), terms of versification (posmas ‘strophe’, hegsametras (now hegzametras) ‘hexameter’), names of stylistic devices (tropas ‘trope’, užtylėjimas (now nutylėjimas) ‘preterition’), names of genres of drama (drama ‘drama’, komedija ‘comedy’) etc were defined or explained. Since some of the concepts (for example, concepts of versification, of stylistic devices) were classified, relationships between terms of those concepts are visible. A merit of V. Kudirka is foundation of Lithuanian terminology of versification which is rather systematic. Lithuanian literary terminology was just being created so it is no surprise that terms used by different authors varied. In comparison with present-day Lithuanian literary terminology not only the expression of terms, but also the content has changed. For instance, terms which are now considered to be names of genres (apysaka ‘novelette’, apsakymas ‘short story’) in the 19th century were being used in a broader meaning. The changes in content of terms were determined by the development of concepts. In the 19th century Lithuanian substitutes for international terms were being sought (sutartinumas (now rimas) ‘rhyme’, atsiliepimas (now rimas) ‘rhyme’, perdalinimas (now dierezė) ‘dieresis’, išleidimas (now elipsė) ‘ellipsis’, atsigręžimas (now apostrofa) ‘apostrophe’), etymological meaning of international terms (of Latin or Greek origin) was taken into consideration (compare: perkirtimas ‘caesura’ (non-terminological meaning ‘cutting’; now cezūra), lot. caesura ‘cutting’). In literary texts of the 19th century Lithuanian terms were sometimes presented with their foreign equivalents, while a group of terms was used without Lithuanian adaptation (Pyrrhichius ‘pyrrhic’). This is a natural feature of the stage of formation of terminology. Features of expression of terms (variability, rare pronominal forms, predomination of attributes with the suffix -iškas etc.) reflect the general situation of the 19th century Lithuanian terminology and general lexis (LGP). 19th century authors of literary texts S. Daukantas, J. Koncevičius, J. Šliūpas, M. Akelaitis, J. Jablonskis, Vaižgantas etc. made comments on some Lithuanian literary terms and their usage although not each one is right and acceptable. An important matter also is the introduction of the term turinys ‘content’ (in spite of former įtalpa, įturis etc.) by J. Jablonskis, A. Jakštas’ encouragement to turn to international terms at the end of the 19th century. Appealing to tradition and striving for systematically may be felt in the comments made in the 19th century.

Vienažodžių matematikos terminų sinonimija matematikos vadovėliuose (1910–1940)

Author(s): Diana Šilobritaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 14/2007

The first Lithuanian textbooks of mathematics (Užduotinas, tai ira Rankius užduocziu Aritmetikos arba Rakundos mokslo (1885) by P. Matulionis and J. Spudulis, Keturi svarbiausiejie veikalai Aritmetikos (1886) by P. Nėris (P. Vileišis), Pradžiamokslis Lietuwiszko spaudraszczo ir rankraszczo (1888) by S. Gimžauskas and Aritmetika (1897) by S. Skačkauskas) were published at the end of 19th century. Before that textbooks of mathematics in Lithuania were published in Latin, later in Polish.From the beginning of the 20th century publishing of Lithuanian textbooks and exercise books of mathematics became more intensive. At that time Aritmetikos uždavinių ir pavyzdžių rinkinys (1906–1918) by P. Bendorius and P. Daugirda, Aritmetikos uždavinynas (1906) by P. Mašiotas and other textbooks were published.This article deals with one-word synonymous terms of mathematics in textbooks of mathematics published in the first half of the 20th century.The material for the article was collected from the following textbooks: Algebros teorija (1919) by V. Budrevičius, Aritmetika (1921) by A. Busilas, Jaunas matininkas (1921) by A. Busilas, Aritmetikos vadovėlis (1910–1911) in two parts by J. Damijonaitis, Plokštinė trigonometrija (1919) by A. Jakštas, Matematikos vadovėlis (Aritmetika ir algebra) (1939–1940) in three parts by J. Mašiotas, Matematikos vadovėlis (Geometrija) (1937–1938) in three parts by J. Mašiotas, Geometrija (1938–1940) in three parts by K. Klimavičius, Aritmetikos teorija (translated by A. Smetona) (1922) by Masing, Geometrija (1923) by M. Šikšnys, Elementarinė algebra (1923) by M. Šikšnys, Geometrija (1938–1939) in three parts by M. Šikšnys, Aritmetika ir algebra (1939) in three parts by M. Šikšnys.The majority of one-word synonymous terms were being used by different authors. Synonyms used by the same author are less frequent. In respect of origin synonymous terms are of two types – of different origin (synonymy of Lithuanian and foreign terms) and of the same origin (synonymy of Lithuanian terms).In Masing’s textbook there was only one pair of Lithuanian synonyms – apibrėžimas (nusakymas) (definition). Synonyms of a different origin are more frequent in textbooks by the same author (dvinaris – binomas (binomial), gretasienis – paralelepipedas (parallelepiped)).Lithuanian synonyms used by different authors are separated into lexical and derivational synonyms.Lexical synonyms in the textbooks researched are most frequent. There are quite a few cases when one of the synonyms was being used by the majority of the authors of textbooks and another one – only by one of the authors (apskritimas – ratlankis (circle), gavinys – išdava (result)).Derivational synonyms are less common. In most cases such synonyms differ only in suffixes (daliklis – dalytojas (denominator)). Cases when one of the synonyms is a noun of a particular formation and another one is a substantivized adjective or participle are less frequent (liečiamoji – lietėja (tangent)).Synonymous one-word terms of different origin are used by different authors very frequently (įstrižainė – diagonalė (diagonal), statinis – katetas (leg)).After the appearance of the first dictionaries of terms of mathematics (Aritmetikos ir algebros terminų žodynėlis (Concise dictionary of terms of arithmetic and algebra) by M. Šikšnys and Geometrijos ir trigonometrijos terminų rinkinėlis (Collection of terms geometry and trigonometry) by Z. Žemaitis) the number of synonyms reduced. There were some cases when the authors of textbooks of mathematics did not take into consideration terms used in the above-mentioned dictionaries, although this was unjustified.The analysis of synonymy of one-word terms of mathematics in textbooks published between 1910 and 1940 leads to the conclusion that the authors of textbooks of mathematics from this period embedded terms of the first dictionaries of mathematics, except in isolated cases, and reduced the synonymy by rejecting foreign terms in many cases. Abundant usage of synonymous terms in textbooks of mathematics from the beginning of the 20th century shows that terminology of mathematics was being intensively ordered at that time. The mentioned period is a very important time of the establishment of Lithuanian terminology of mathematics.

Благой Шклифов. Фразеологичен речник на говора на село Черешница, Костурско

Author(s): Mariyana Vitanova / Language(s): Bulgarian Issue: 34/2017

Лексикография и терминоведение

Author(s): Siergiej Grinev-Griniewicz / Language(s): Russian Issue: 15/2008

New trends in investigating common ground of lexicography and terminology science where a new scientific discipline – terminography was formed lately are discussed. Dictionary serves as the main means of presentation and existence of special vocabulary, various types of terminological work resulting in elaborating terminological dictionaries. Benefits of systemic approach to compiling various types of dictionaries are presented. New applications of historic dictionaries and dictionaries of synonyms in terminological research and investigation of evolution of human mentality are introduced. Using the reversibility method in appraising quality of translation dictionaries is suggested.

Lietuvių kalba ir visuomenė: bendrasis ir terminologinis aspektai

Author(s): Jonas Klimavičius / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

Questions of the usage of languages, their changes, their future and even their fate are often very directly linked with globalization. Another word frequently used is challenges (by Arnold Toynbee). Answers are not so loud and often there are no attempts made to understand what globalization is. Its genesis and concepts allows us to separate cultural globalization and within it – globalization of languages, i.e. global tendencies of the usage of languages. Also globalism – an ideology of globalization or a theory of global international politics – stands out together with anti-globalism, which at least for now has a confused and negative theoretical background and is associated with too many aggressive actions of protest and even terror. Thus globalization is a rather direct threatening factor for the usage of languages and an unfavourable background for the functioning and usage of the language.Concentration of everybody’s full attention only on the impact of undefined globalization is wrong not only because of its one-sidedness, but also because other more important and specific factors are forgotten or hushed up and they are and were abundant. On the other side of the iron curtain the ugly phenomena of the 20th century were flourishing, directly impacting upon as well as causing a negative background for the functioning of language in general and small languages in particular. Such phenomena include consumer and mass society, disposable civilization, marketing, advertising, agitation, mass media and especially commercialisation of television, mass culture, three minute culture, fashion, creation of stars, Americanization of culture (pop music, Hollywood films, westerns, TV serials, soap operas, ...). In general terms a common denominator of these phenomena is their tendency to make a man and a life primitive, specifically the creation of a wooden language. These phenomena, strongly attacked by soviet anti-American propaganda and to some extent evaluated in Lithuanian philosophical discourse after the fall of the iron curtain swept into Lithuania, to the weary spirit of which everything coming from the West seemed to be good. At the same time fifty year old truths about our own life in the evil empire – new language, thought police, double think, enslavement of the mind – reached us from the West as well. These truths reached us, but did not have the right impact on us. Together with such things as the disintegration of the evil empire, restoration of the independence of Lithuania, status of the Lithuanian language as a state language, national rebirth, democratisation of the society and the creation of a civil society, European and transatlantic integration of Lithuania, came unofficial Anglization, computerization and internetization which are now very specific factors, the importance of which to national identity and selfawareness, culture and language has been considerable for twenty years and will remain crucial and epochal for a long time.Every language is ethnic or national – native. Our native language – Lithuanian – for a few centuries under the conditions of continuous subordinate bilingualism had very many contacts with the Polish language – the whole area of the Lithuanian language was flooded with it. Only a few consequences have been eliminated, and although contacts with Polish have for some time been almost broken, the majority of losses are, like loss of national territory, irreversible. For two centuries a similar destructive work in the Lithuanian language area was done by the Russian language. Now a new era of contacts with the English language has arrived – territory is not being lost, but a part of the Lithuanian language speakers are. Therefore it is useful to get acquainted with these imperial, colonial as well as international languages (and linguae francae) from inside – how they are perceived and judged by Russians and English themselves. It is important to remember that the essence of linguae francae is only the performance of the communicative function. This is not enough for the national language to live and survive – it could cause death. The Lithuanian language has a dead sister – the Prussian language. The area of the Lithuanian language has crumbled away in the west and in the southeast and it is not even continuous within the state borders. Speakers of a big language can have a theoretical discussion if the language is or is not an obligatory element of nationality and statehood. A Lithuanian can speak here only about lucky or unlucky (for himself!) exceptions. Only the old nearly universal order provides guarantees: only a national state language is safe or: a state is its own language. Although the world is bilingual (mostly in that communicative function), bilingualism is a characteristic not of big, but of small languages and it implies subordination, thus some dangers.In the theory of Lithuanian linguistics, the communicative function is considered to be neither the only, nor the main one. Simas Karaliūnas separates the ethnic function as well. Various journalists, specialists of culture and other provincials of the time (avant nous, le Déluge) are talking only about the means of communication, demanding unrestricted development of the language, declaring anticodification attitudes, rights and validity of jargon and similar good willed ignorance and demonising linguists. They defeat some linguists because of the lack of solidarity and culture of the latter. Lithuanian linguists dare to challenge anti-cultural globalization and sometimes win. The force of terminologists is small, but they publish the scientific (international from the 13th issue) magazine Terminologija (Terminology). The principle of state protection of the Lithuanian language is being implemented although not consistently.

Заимствование в составе украинской экологической терминологии

Author(s): Stanislava Ovseichik / Language(s): Russian Issue: 15/2008

The article is devoted to the research of the Ukrainian ecological terminology. The semantic and structural peculiarities of borrowings are analysed in this investigation. The many-sided consideration of the terminological material has enabled the identification of reasons for including adopted units, features of their adaptation and functioning. Fixing of derivative ecological terms from foreign lexemes, confirms that the important index of depth of lexical assimilation of the adopted term in a new environment is its word-formation activity. Determination of value of borrowings in the process of forming of Ukrainian ecological terminology gives a clear explanation of organization not only of ecological terms, determines the different types relationships between them in its limits but also terminology in general.

Lietuviški Vinco Kudirkos medicinos terminai

Author(s): Palmira Zemlevičiūtė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

The rise of the movement of Lithuanian national rebirth at the end of the 19th century speeded up the publication of works in Lithuanian. Popular books, booklets, articles in newspapers and almanacs on various issues of medicine became more numerous. One of the doctors who was educating people on health issues was a famous Lithuanian public figure Vincas Kudirka (1858–1899), In Varpas magazine he published four articles in the field of hygiene – “Arbata” (“Tea”) (1889), “Kava” (“Coffee”) (1889), “Tabakas” (“Tobacco”) (1889) and “Alkoholis ir alkoholizmas” (“Alcohol and alcoholism”) (1895).This article deals with medical terms of the Lithuanian origin in the above-mentioned writings of Vincas Kudirka. Such terms comprise up to 70% of terms used by him. 40% of them are still being used (akis (eye), dusulys (shortness of breath), džiova (tuberculosis), gerklė (throat), gydymas (treatment), gydytojas (doctor), kraujas (blood), kūdikis (baby), kvėpavimas (breathing), ligonis (patient), sveikata (health), vaistas (medication) and others) and 60% fell out of usage in modern language of medicine.Vincas Kudirka used quite a lot of Lithuanian names for body parts and organs, which did not take root in the language – akies baltymas ‘odena’ (white of the eyes), ašarinis takas ‘ašarų kanalėlis’ (tear duct), auda ‘audinys’ (tissue), dantų smegenys ‘dantenos’ (gums), dirgsnis ‘nervas’ (nerve), grumulas ‘liauka’ (gland), indas ‘kraujagyslė’ (blood-wessel), jungplonė ‘konjunktyva’ (conjunctiva), lėliukė ‘akies vyzdys’ (pupil), pilvaplonė ‘pilvaplėvė’ (peritoneum), plonė ‘plėvė’ (membrane), saldmėsės ‘kasa’ (pancreas), slidplonė ‘gleivinė’ (mucous membrane), sunkė ‘arterija’ (artery). All these words are given in Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of the Lithuanian language) in the meanings used by Kudirka and the majority of them have illustrative examples from the earlier-mentioned writings of Kudirka. There were also some Lithuanian names of diseases, their symptoms, medical conditions and other terms related to medicine used by Kudirka which did not take root in the language either, for instance apjakimas ‘apakimas’ (loss of sight), duosnė ‘dozė’ (dose), galvos sopimas ‘galvos skausmai’ (headache), gyvastis ‘gyvybė’ (life), limpanti liga ‘infekcinė liga’ (contagious disease), styris ‘tetanas, ilgalaikis raumens susitraukimas’ (tetanus), žlėbčiojimas ‘virškinimas’ (digestion). Kudirka, like other doctors, used to give Latin equivalents next to some Lithuanian medical terms, for instance džiova (phthisis) (tuberculosis), kasa (pancreas) (pancreas), vilkas (lupus) (lupus) and other.Kudirka’s articles are important sources of the history of Lithuanian medical science and Lithuanian medical terminology. Kudirka contributed to the creation of Lithuanian medical terminology, though he did not make a special effort in this. The majority of the words he tried to use as medical were words of folk language. He was not content with borrowings, but was looking for Lithuanian equivalents to name medical concepts and created some Lithuanian medical terms as a result. According to the data from Lietuvių kalbos žodynas and Jonas Palionis thesis Lietuvių literatūrinės kalbos normalizacija XIX a. pabaigoje (1880–1901) (Normalization of the Lithuanian standard/literary language at the end of 19th century) (1952) terms jungplonė ‘konjunktyva’ (conjunctiva), pilvaplonė ‘pilvaplėvė’ (peritoneum), slidplonė ‘gleivinė’ (mucous membrane), sunkė ‘arterija’ (artery), sunkinis kraujas ‘arterinis kraujas’ (arterial blood) and other terms could have been created by Kudirka, but they did not take root in the modern language of medicine.

1883–1916 m. katekizmai ir jų religijos terminų reikšminės grupės

Author(s): Aušra Rimkutė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

The catechism is a very important literary form of the Church. It teaches the basics of Christianity, its moral and ethic norms, which make the foundation for the life of a Christian. During the period of thirty three years (between 1883 and 1916) there were 86 Catholic and 11 Protestant (9 Lutheran and 2 Calvinist) catechisms published. During the period when printing in Lithuanian was prohibited catechisms were published outside the borders of Lithuania Major. Catechisms are mainly aimed at teaching children and youth, therefore they had an important role as primers in Lithuanian and as educators of the native language. According to A. Jakštas, “nearly every well-known catechist took care to prepare his own catechism. Thus the number of catechisms grew with every year; there were a lot of them written and published – each one in its own particular method, particular terminology and particular plan” (Jakštas 1923: 239). Furthermore it is obvious that compilers of catechisms had a need to explain terms of non Lithuanian origin (mostly international words). Most frequently such terms were explained using the Lithuanian equivalent – sometimes more, sometimes less successful. Variants of terms were abundant.In this article terms of religion are considered to be words and combinations of words, which name the supernatural (angelas (angel), Dievas (God), Dvasia (Spirit), velnias (devil)), rites (atnašavimas (sacrifice), mišios (Mass), pamaldos (service), pamokslas (sermon), procesija (procession)), actions related to religion (atgaila (penance), išganymas (salvation), išpažintis (confession)), Church celebrations (Sekminės (Whit Sunday), Velykos (Easter)), names of objects (grabas (coffin), kielikas (chalice), ostija (host), patena (paten)), moral principles of the Christian life, behaviour to be avoided or to be followed (atgailos atlikimas (execution of penance), gailestis už griekus (repentance of sins), išmalda (pittance), malda (prayer), tikėjimas (faith)), religious books and texts (Biblija (Bible), Evangelija (Gospel)), sacraments (Krikštas (Baptism), Kunigystė (Holy Orders), Moterystė (Matrimony), Paskutinis Patepimas (Anointing of the Sick)), sins and their kinds (apsirijimas (gluttony), godulystė (greed), vagystė (stealing), žmogžudystė (killing)) and names of persons (apaštalas (apostle), eretikas (heretic), išganytojas (Saviour), popiežius (Pope), vyskupas (bishop)) and other.

Pirmųjų matematikos žodynėlių terminija

Author(s): Diana Šilobritaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

The beginning the 20th century is a very important stage of the creation of terms of mathematics – a lot of textbooks and exercise books of mathematics and, most importantly, first dictionaries of mathematics were published.Aritmetikos ir algebros terminų žodynėlis (Dictionary of terms of arithmetic and algebra) by M. Šikšnys and Geometrijos ir trigonometrijos terminų rinkinėlis (A collection of terms of geometry and trigonometry) by Z. Žemaitis were the first Lithuanian dictionaries of terms published in already restored independent Lithuania. They laid the foundations for the modern terminology of mathematics – the majority of terms from them took root in the language. However not all terms presented in dictionaries survived and were used in mathematics. The important thing is that special meanings of these terms, but not terms themselves vanished, because these words are still being used (įvardijimas (naming), luomas (caste, estate), skyrius (section, chapter) (M. Šikšnys); atmaina (species, variety), ieškinys (plaint, lawsuit, claim), priedėlis (appendage) (Z. Žemaitis)). There are some cases when only grammatical form of terms or their word-formation changed (išvadas (= išvada) (conclusion), lygtys (= lygtis) (equation), sudarymas (= darymas) (formation), lyginimas (= palyginimas) (congruence) (M. Šikšnys); liečiamoji (= liestinė) (tangent), kertamoji (= kirstinė) (secant line), veiksmaženklis (= veiksmo ženklas) (action sign) (Z. Žemaitis)). Only few terms from these dictionaries fell out of the usage in the modern language completely (išdalos (M. Šikšnys); prasmas, skretė (Z. Žemaitis)).In the earlier mentioned dictionaries there are some synonyms of terms (of the same or different origin), which are presented in brackets, after comma, dash or equal sign. However it is quite difficult to judge the synonymy, because rather frequently one Russian term has two or three equivalents, which in Lithuanian parts of dictionaries are presented as separate terms and in Russian parts – in the same term entry.The wish to purify terms and make them more Lithuanian is a particularly noticeable tendency. Terms of the foreign origin are not numerous (especially in the dictionary of M. Šikšnys). Almost all of them have Lithuanian equivalents, which are viewed as main variants. However, not all attempts to substitute international terms with Lithuanian terms were successful. There are few international terms the textbooks of mathematics, which were in usage for a long time (formulė (formula), kubas (cube) (M. Šikšnys); postulatas (postulate), principas (principle) (Z. Žemaitis)).

The concept of ‘taste’ in formation of Croatian and Turkish lexicon: A contrastive analysis

Author(s): Ida Raffaelli,Barbara Kerovec / Language(s): English Issue: 83/2017

The paper explores the importance of the concept of ‘taste’ in the formation of the Croatian and the Turkish lexicon. The main goals of the paper are 1) to investigate differences and similarities in conceptual mappings based on the concept of ‘taste’ in two typologically different and genetically unrelated languages by analyzing the vocabulary based on the root kus in Croatian and the vocabulary based on the root tat in Turkish and 2) to see to what extent the formation of taste vocabulary differs with respect to lexicalization patterns in the two languages.

Paradigmele termenilor militari de origine polonă în cronicile lui Miron Costin, Nicolae Costin şi Ion Neculce

Author(s): Raluca E. Iftime / Language(s): French Issue: 2/2016

The article examines the influence exercised by Polish language with regard to military terminology of old Romanian vocabulary. By establishing three lexical-semantic fields, we shall take into account generic names of military personnel, generic names of military grades and generic names of weaponry and munitions. Polish influence over Romanian old vocabulary between XVI and XVIII centuries is the result of direct relations between Romanian and Polish savants, due to contact of Moldavian scholars with Polish schools during their studies and with Polish realities or due to presence of Polish people in Moldova, as missionaries and/or travelers. Therefore, we shall examine how Polish influence has distributed over Romanian old texts, such as chronicles or text translations from Polish language by rendering to Romanian language lexical loanwords into the military field of direct Polish origin or lexemes in Polish originated from Latin or sometimes, a Romanic idiom.