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The aim of the article is to present the methods of translation of the names of political parties in Russian and Polish press. The author focuses on difficulties of replacing several parts of the names by their lexical equivalents. Besides the other methods of introduction the names of political parties into the text such as abbreviation in the source and target language and transcription have been presented.
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The texts analyzed in this paper include Russian articles, which have been translated into Polish and published in the weekly „Forum”. These articles deal with the relations between Polish and Russian. This paper focuses on fixed phrases found in these texts and phraseography as well as the understanding of these texts by Polish readers. Being language-specific and culture-specific, fixed phrases require special attention and knowledge on the part of the reader. Recognizing and placing these phrases in a proper context are prerequisites for their appropriate interpretation and understanding possible allusions occurring both in the original texts and their translations.
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The present article is devoted to different types of French phraseological borrowings in the Russian language of the 18th century. Lexical borrowings mostly preserve their material content in the borrowing language, whereas phraseological units as a rule become loantranslations. Due to this fact it is complicated to prove whether the given phraseological unit is a borrowing or not. The present article suggests a methodology for differentiation of phraseological loan-translations from the parallel idiomatic units that appeared directly in the borrowing language. On the basis of the suggested methodology the author determines the structure of French borrowings in the Russian phraseology of the 18th century.
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The paper contains some reflections on possibilities of establishing adequate Russian equivalents of Polish proverbs by the means of the Polish proverbial minimum. The author find fault with frequently applied presentation of some syntactic constructs made by lexicographers in the target language as the authentic proverbs of this language. He proposes three kinds of equivalents: adequate, functional, and loan translations, marked with a special symbol (∅). Such equivalents have been verified with certain lingual data, taken from targe language dictionaries and from the Internet browsers.
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Information about the word фразеология in Russian phraseological dictionaries is scanty and does not reflect the current usage of Russians who are not linguists, as shown in the Internet (Runet). The paper discusses uses of the word that cannot be found in dictionaries, and which show how rich the phraseology is.
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The subject of the article is based on differences and similarities which occur in both Polish and Russian languages according to homonymy. Under consideration there is taken synchronic and etymological approach. There are analyzed the definitions of the term ‘homonym’ in accordance to the dictionaries of both languages. Especially there is emphasized the revolutionary turn of the study of this subject as homonyms might appear in language not only by accident but as a result of disintegration of the polysemy. The article discusses also the first attempts on the way to distinguish homonymy from polysemy. On the base of all these considerations, there are showed the most important moments in the evolution of this subject and directions of the further studies.
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The complex derivation system of the Russian verb poses great difficulties for translators from Russian into Spanish. Different theories have attempted to explain the problem from different points of view, and analysis has shown that the meaning of the verbs defines the meaning of the prefixes. Here we concentrate on the prefix по-, expressing small quantity in Russian. The result of our analysis is a systematization of the meaning of verbs containing the prefix по-. In addition, the article defines rules for translating verbs with this prefix from Russian into Spanish.
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Review on Halina Bartwicka's book: Ze studiów konfrontatywno-przekładowych nad językiem polskim i rosyjskim. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Takt 2006, 125 s.
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Salt is a vital substance in terms of human health and has quite a wide usage area. The word “salt” is used in the form of “salt” in general, although sometimes it can occur in different forms phonetically and morphologically in the historical and contemporary Turkish dialects. Salt, which is a flavoring substance and believed to play an active role in creation, has been considered a precious and holy substance and a rich sense of meaning has formed around it. Initially describing a single concept, the word has gradually gained new meanings and reflected multiple concepts due to the changes and people’s spiritual moods in the social life. Apart from its actual meaning, “salt” has also metaphorical meanings such as “beautiful, beauty, dear and charming”. Furthermore, the word has been included in manners of speaking such as idioms and proverbs and used to facilitate reflecting the lifestyles, worldviews, traditions, customs and beliefs in the Turkish society. There is no doubt that a language can survive and continue its existence only by finding counterparts for new concepts. New words are derived as a result of the need for them. The unique nature of each society’s lifestyle is a decisive factor in meeting this requirement. Expansion in the sense of the word “salt” also brought forward the necessity for new words. In this respect, many words derived from the stem “salt” were added to Turkish and the new concepts or objects that fall into the meaning of “salt” were represented by its derivatives. This article focuses on the changes in the meaning and usage of “salt” and aims to express the richness added by it to the lexicon of Turkish.
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Some special lexical doubletes from Christian terminology were recognized in the Old Slavonic monuments. Some of them were: ввседржитеив (Greek pavTOkpatrop) and ввсЕжогши (Latin omnipotens, but also Greek pavTofinvapog). Both of them were recorded in the Serbian Slavonic sources, as a proof of eastern and western influences. We have shown (in this theme) cultural and spiritual connections between the West and the Serbian (Nemanjic’s) state. On the other hand it is clear there are obvious links between the manuscript tradition from the Bosnia region and the East, in which it fits into common Serbian Slavonic, and further, in the Greek (Byzantine) heritage. We should not always, at any cost, locate the manuscripts, made in transitional eastern-western model, in the medieval Moravia or Bosnia. They could have arisen in an area of Serbian land in the narrow sense, or anywhere where Serbian Slavonic language was in use (Athos, Sinai etc).
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This article proposes to view lexicographic comparatistics as a collection of methods which are useful in all areas of dictionary research, i.e. systematic dictionary research, historical dictionary research, critical dictionary research, and research on dictionary use. The main aim, however, is to show a close relationship between lexicographic comparatistics and dictionary criticism. The two of the presented methods which, respectively, consist in studying influences in the field of lexicography and conducting various kinds of comparisons, referring to lexicographic theory as well as praxis, can be productively applied in dictionary criticism. Making a claim that within lexicographic comparatistics it is comparison that is the dominant concept, the author analyses two types of lexicographic comparison – the comparison of dictionaries and the comparison of dictionary reviews – both of which can also function as methods of dictionary criticism.
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LIWC (Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count) is widely used word-level content analysis software. It was used in large number of studies in the fields of clinical, social and personality psychology, and it is adapted for text analysis in 11 world languages. The aim of this research was to validate empirically newly constructed adaptation of LIWC software for Serbian language (LIWCser). The sample of the texts consisted of 384 texts in Serbian and 141 texts in English. It included scientific paper abstracts, newspaper articles, movie subtitles, short stories and essays. Comparative analysis of Serbian and English version of the software demonstrated acceptable level of equivalence (ICCM=.70). Average coverage of the texts with LIWCser dictionary was 69.93%, and variability of this measure in different types of texts is in line with expected. Adaptation of LIWC software for Serbian opens entirely new possibilities of assessment of spontaneous verbal behaviour that is highly relevant for different fields of psychology.
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Our paper is an attempt to indicate the relevance of information theoretical accounts to understand word recognition and morphological processing in Hungarian, along with other studies using more traditional predictors like linear position and morphological composition. The first two experiments were gating studies. The effect of the decision points was only evident in frequent words. The correct recognition means for the recognition points differ from the means for one-before-recognition points, indicating that the recognition point follows a sudden drop of the entropy value. This shows how entropy measures can be used to predict word recognition in actual language performance. The next two experiments examined the word reconstruction effect. A clear bathtub effect (Aitchison, 1987) was obtained: reconstruction was highest in the cases where both the beginning and the end were correct. The last, lexical decision based study used four basic morphological types of markers (plural, second and first possessive) and three types of case (-nak,-ban-,-ra ‘DAT, INSIDE, ONTO). The main effect of the frequency and the error type was significant. Frequent words were judged faster but less accurately, suggesting a trade-off. The later the mistake is, the faster and easier its rejection was.
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In Serbian, lexical decision latencies to words composed of letters that exist in both the Roman and Cyrillic alphabets (some of which have different phonemic interpretations in each) are slower than for the unique alphabet transcription of those same words. In this study, we use the effect of phonological ambiguity to explore the time course of semantic facilitation. Targets are either the phonologically ambiguous forms (e.g., PETAK meaning “Friday” when pronounced as a Roman string /petak/ but without meaning when pronounced in Cyrillic as /retak/) or the unique alphabet transcription of the same word (ПETAK). We manipulate alphabet match and semantic relatedness of prime to target. In addition to replicating slowing due to phonological ambiguity, we show 1) greater alphabet switch cost for bivalent then for unambiguous targets as well as for unrelated then for related prime-target pairs and 2) greater semantic facilitation as the number of shared common letters between prime and target increases. Results reveal the interaction of phonological and semantic processes in Serbian. The findings are discussed in terms of a triangle model of language processing, which hypothesizes a division of labor between an orthography-to-semantics, and an orthographyto-phonology-to-semantics route and their simultaneous contribution to activation of meaning.
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In the current paper we discuss the mechanisms that underlie the processing of inflectional and derivational complexity in English. We address this issue from a neurocognitive perspective and present evidence from a new fMRI study that the two types of morphological complexity engage the language processing network in different ways. The processing of inflectional complexity selectively activates a left-lateralised frontotemporal system, specialised for combinatorial grammatical computations, while derivational complexity primarily engages a distributed bilateral system, argued to support whole-word, stem based lexical access. We discuss the implications of our findings for theories of the processing and representation of morphologically complex words.
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According to the CARIN theory of Gagné and Shoben (1997), conceptual relations play an important role in compound interpretation. This study develops three measures gauging the role of conceptual relations, and pits these measures against measures based on latent semantic analysis (Landauer & Dumais, 1997). The CARIN measures successfully predict response latencies in a familiarity categorization task, in a semantic transparency task, and in visual lexical decision. Of the measures based on latent semantic analysis, only a measure orthogonal to the conceptual relations, which instead gauges the extent to which the concepts for the compound’s head and the compound itself are discriminated, also reached significance. Results further indicate that in tasks requiring careful assesment of the meaning of the compound, general knowledge of conceptual relations plays a central role, whereas in the lexical decision task, attention shifts to co-activated meanings and the specifics of the conceptual relations realized in the compound’s modifier family.
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This paper explores the question of when and how morphological families are formed in one’s mental lexicon, by analyzing age-of-acquisition norms to morphological families (e.g., booking, bookshelf, check book) and their shared morphemes (book). We demonstrate that the speed of growth and the size of the family depend on how early the shared morpheme is acquired and how many connections the family has at the time a new concept is incorporated in the family. These findings dovetail perfectly with the Semantic Growth model of connectivity in semantic networks by Steyvers and Tenenbaum (2005). We discuss implications of our findings for theories of vocabulary acquisition.
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In this study we investigated whether and how the cognitive system uses morphological markedness of animacy and gender pairs. In the Serbian language masculine nouns are marked for animacy (i.e., genitive-accusative syncretism), while for feminine nouns the animacy distinction is purely semantic. Thus, in Experiment 1 we used this natural, linguistic differentiation to test whether morphological markedness of animacy influences lexical processing. In the same experiment, we tested whether the cognitive system is sensitive to the fact that some animate nouns have a sibling in the other gender (e.g., dečak /”boy”/ – devojčica /”girl”/), while others do not have it (e.g., vojnik /”soldier”/ or žirafa /”giraffe”/). We labeled this indicator sibling presence. The analysis did not confirm the effect of animacy, neither between nor within genders. However, animate nouns with a sibling were processed faster than those without a sibling. Since the majority of sibling nouns are morphologically related (like konobar /”waiter”/ – konobarica /”waitress”/), while the rest are not (e.g., petao /”rooster”/ – kokoška /”hen”/), in Experiment 2 we tested whether morphological relatedness contributed to the effect of sibling presence. Results showed that this is not the case: morphologically related and unrelated masculine-feminine pairs of nouns (siblings) were processed equally fast. Furthermore, an interaction between the target’s frequency and the frequency of its sibling was observed: nouns with a more frequent sibling benefited more from their own frequency than those with a less frequent sibling. We argue that sibling support is realized through semantic, not morphological relations. Taken together, our findings suggest that morphological markedness is not used in lexical processing, which is in line with an amorphous approach to lexical processing.
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We modified classical mental exploration task introducing verbal modality. Consequently, we could test robust effects from lexical processing in an attempt to understand whether the underlying mental representation is strictly propositional. In our three experiments, in addition to map modality (visual or verbal), lexical frequency, concreteness and visual frequency were also varied. The symbolic distance effect was replicated, regardless of map modality. Exploration of distances was regularly faster on pictorial maps. Effects of lexical frequency and concreteness were not significant for verbal maps. However, when visual frequency was introduced on pictorial maps both type of frequencies generated measurable effects. Our findings directly contradict the assumptions of propositional theories (1) subjects were faster in the visual modality, which would be difficult to explain if the perceptual code had to be transformed into propositional, (2) word frequency and concreteness did not contribute as would be expected if propositional code were a default.
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The aim of this study was to examine the effect of congruence between the sensory modality through which a concept can be experienced and the modality through which the word denoting that concept is perceived during word recognition. Words denoting concepts that can be experienced visually (e.g. “color”) and words denoting concepts that can be experienced auditorily (e.g. “noise”) were presented both visually and auditorily. We observed shorter processing latencies when there was a match between the modality through which a concept could be experienced and the modality through which a word denoting that concept was presented. In visual lexical decision task, “color” was recognized faster than “noise”, whereas in auditory lexical decision task, “noise” was recognized faster than “color”. The obtained pattern of results cannot be accounted for by exclusive amodal theories, whereas it can be easily integrated in theories based on perceptual representations.
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