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The traditions of organ playing in the second half of the 19th century can be characterized by a difference between musicians in big cities, who played a rather difficult repertoire, and in small towns.The organ as an instrument did not play such an important role in Catholic Church as in Protestant churches of Lithuania. Thus the organ playing traditions in Lithuania in the second half of the 19th century were not developed to such a high level as in other Baltic States.The traditions of professional organ playing in Lithuania were developed late in the 19th century, when the Lithuanian composer Juozas Naujalis came back to his native land after his studies in Warsaw.The repertoire of the Lithuanian organists Jonas Žukas, Zigmas Aleksandravičius, Konradas Kaveckas consisted of romantic and impressionistic music by German, French, Italian, Polish and Lithuanian composers. The main part of the repertoire of these Lithuanian organists consisted of their own interpretations, which were performed in their own original style.A new generation of famous organists-teachers was trained at the Kaunas Conservatoire (1933-1949). Their professional level exceeded the fundamentals of playing the organ in church. The playing of the organ was based on the European traditions of interpretation which became popular in Lithuania.
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Customs duty constituted one of the public tributes regulating international trade after regaining independence by Poland in 1918. The independent character of the customs duty was emphasised not only by the character of the regulations in customs law, but also by the existence of a specialised branch of public administration devoted to its collection. Customs duty performed a fiscal function and constituted an instrument of protection against inundation of the Polish market by cheap commodities imported from abroad.
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Field and summary proceedings of the military criminal procedure constitute the most characteristic modes of this particular suit. In these modes, unlike in any other proceedings, it becomes evident how crucial the command factor is for the military judiciary as well as how paramount general prevention is for severe and swift penalisation of criminal activity by the military court. These particular forms of proceedings in the military constitute also an opportunity to present the general rules and solutions for criminal proceedings which are incongruous with the military criminal procedure.The particular character of this kind of military criminal action is also manifested in the fact that it originated in the Polish Army around the time Poland regained independence, and the cases tried in military courts at the time testify to the condition of the resurgent country.
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In historiography, there is an ongoing discussion about the actual range of power of three emperors of the Empire of Japan: Meiji, Taishō and Shōwa (known as Hirohito). The 1889–1945 Constitution formally granted them huge prerogatives. While some historians regard that as fiction, others are ready to treat the three monarchs – and especially Emperor Shōwa – as true dictators. The fragmentary sources suggest that Emperor Meiji had a genuine share in ruling. He served as an arbitrator between the government, the army and the genrō – an unofficial council of “honorable statesmen,” who had the last word. It was possible thanks to the huge personal respect he enjoyed. As a result of his son Emperor Taishō’s illness and dying out of the genrō, the military prerogatives were taken over by the general staffs of the army and navy, formally dependent solely on the ruler. They were counterbalanced by the last living genrō, Prince Saionji, who died in 1940.
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The term ‘asymmetric conflict’ is mainly used with reference to modern times to describe a conflict of two enemies whose resources differ significantly. However, it seems justifiable to use this term also to refer to confrontations which took place in the past. That is why an analysis was made of the Third Anglo-Afghan war as an example of an asymmetric conflict. At first sight it would seem that what we have here is a typical clash between a weaker opponent and a much more powerful one. However, a more in-depth analysis of the characteristics of this conflict in the context of asymmetry questions the simplified assertion that the Third Anglo-Afghan War was this kind of confrontation.
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Subsequent to facing with the great tragedy at the Allahuekber Mountains in the Sarikamis area of the Caucasian front, one of the attacking fronts during World War I, it was seen that the Russians got into a forward operation with new attack plans. When we look at the Russians’ forward operation plans; The Georgian strait and Dumlu would be kept under pressure and occupied by Ilica cavalry units. Correspondingly, Haydari strait would be conquered and Ottoman III. army would be destroyed with two forces united in Ilica. In response to the Russian progress which had begun in late March, X.corps commander reported the situation to the III. army on 3 th May, and it was seen that Ottoman III. army was preparing for the defense. First, III. army headquarters was moved from Oltu to Tortum on 9 May 1915, and I. and II. Tortum battles, which were won in the region, took place. But, due to insufficiency of personnel, lack of supply and contact; difficulties were faced in the forward operation. Despite I. and II. Tortum battles were successful, due to the defeats in Horasan and Pasinler districts, the Tortum front was evacuated and the Ottoman Army had to retreat. In the study, I. and II. Tortum battles were examined in detail.
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In pre-war Lithuania of the 20s, there were essential differences between manifestations of modernism in literature, art, and theatre. These differences were due to objective reasons having to do with the historical developments in each of these areas. What the modern and innovative manifestations in all areas of the arts had in common was the fact that they came belated compared to analogous phenomena in Western Europe (where they became the focus of avant-garde art).Lithuanian theatre's unique and exclusive developmental peculiarities as well as its evolutionary difficulties in the third decade of its existence determined the belated and overly modest manifestations of modern art. These manifestations are associated with the formation of professional theatre, the direction representing the old pre-reformist Russian school, the theatre repertoire, as well as the complicated situation of the company in the first decade of the professional national theatre's existence.Director Borisas Dauguvietis' outbursts of modernism in the third decade of the theatre involve elements of symbolism, naturalism, orientalism, "technicism", a theatrical improvisation in the "commedia dell'arte" style; these single flashes can be observed in the following plays: G. Hauptmann's "Hannele", M. Maeterlinck's "The Intruder", J. Vilkutaitis-Keturakis's "Amerika pirtyje", C. Gozzi's "Turandot", L. Pirandello's "Right You Are, If You Think You Are", and Moliere's "The Imaginary Invalid". B. Dauguvietis' searches for the origin and essence of modern stage tools and their contact with the repercussions of Eastern (A. Tairov's) and Western modern stage art are also notable. In the context of the national drama theatre's repertoire, these productions demonstrated B. Dauguvietis' creative potential as well as the company's barely noticeable slip towards scenic novelties. In that sense, the fourth decade of the theatre's development was far richer and more colourful, linked with the entrenchment of scenic innovation and modern direction (examples of the above include A. Oleka Žilinskas', Mikhail Chekhov's, and their students A. Jakševičius' and R. Juknevičius' original directions representing the scenic avant-gardism of the 1930s in Russia.)
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In this paper we analyze the nascent years of the Polish public sphere during the years before and after the 1905 Revolution. We assert that it was a moment of clash between, on the one hand, the intelligentsia and its de facto bourgeois vision of politics, and on the other a rising proletarian counter-public. The popular unrest initiated a massive upsurge of workers into the process of mass politics. As we argue, this situation shocked the elites, attached to their utopian vision of the Polish people, “enlightened” from above by the intelligentsia. Consequently, their reaction was ambivalent, if not reluctant. The intelligentsia’s attitude was growingly tainted with a conservative fear of the masses, which inhibited the development of plebeian constituencies and forms of political articulation. This posed a cornerstone for the future layering of the public sphere, leading to what we call its pathogenesis. It produced outcomes lasting for years, as well as a general contempt towards democratic demands resulting in the impossibility of collective bargaining about popular economic interests.
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An article is devoted to the activity of the Armenian party “Dashnag “ in that time in Southern Caucasus. The party used the conflict for its own political arrogances and aims and for increasing of own influence in the region. The article exposes positions of tsarism and revolutionary forces with regard to the party “Dashnag “ and reasons of such like attitude. In the article are shown the negative results of “Dashnag “s tactics both for the region and for the Armenians” image among the neighboring nations.
More...Symbolická inštrumentalizácia M. R. Štefánika a slovanská vzájomnosť na pozadí dobových medzištátnych vzťahov
MACHO , Peter. “He flew on wings of Slavonic feeling to Serbia to help the Serbsin 1915”. The symbolic instrumentalization of M.R. Štefánik and Slavonic community against the background of the inter-state relations of the time. Historický časopis, 2015, 63, 1, pp. 47-80, Bratislava. The study analyses the symbolic instrumentalization of the national hero M.R.Štefánik in the context of the modified form of Slavonic community in the 20th century. In the inter-war period, the symbol of Štefánik was used to strengthen the Czechoslovak – Yugoslav alliance on the basis of Slavonic brotherhood. The political representatives of independent Slovakia and Croatia during the Second World War refused to build their inter-state relations on the basis of Slavonic community. From the point of view of Zagreb, Štefánik appeared pro-Serb and pro-Yugoslav, so he was an undesirable symbol for the Croats. Emphasis on the strong Slavonic and Serbophil identity of Štefánik became an instrument for Slovak opposition oriented circles to articulate their resistance to the Ľudák regime and the Slovak state.
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Bulgarian emigration appeared in the new world as relatively massive community in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In the first decade of the twentieth century the number of its members exceeds 50,000 people. In the large industrial centers of the US and Canada, durable Bulgarian settlements occurred. With the emergence of children in immigrant families, the need aroused of Bulgarian immigrant school. The first Bulgarians educators overseas solved the problem of textbooks in the most correct way. All manuals were ordered from Bulgaria. Thus in 1906 in North America, the first Bulgarian primer penetrated, which at that time was used in the school of free Bulgarian state. This book played an invaluable role in the preservation of native Bulgarian language among immigrant second generation and promote the conservation of important national virtues among newborns Bulgarians in the new world.
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On the basis of the official records, this paper listed the names of the killed soldiers of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy from the area of Gracanica district. Besides the names of the killed soldiers, the names of those that were wounded and those that got into war captivity were also listed. The list is given in the chronological order, by the age.
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The aim of this article is to introduce the reader to the residential houses designed by Aleksandrs Vanags (1873–1919) in the style of Nordic National Romanticism, looking at not just the textbook examples but also at less well known buildings. Vanags has left a considerable legacy in the architecture of Latvia. Some one hundred buildings were constructed after his designs during the peak of his activity from 1906 to 1914. These were mainly multi-storey apartment houses in Riga and around forty private and public buildings outside Riga. The buildings examined in the article illustrate the flourishing and decline of Nordic National Romanticism that prevailed in Vanags’ work until this trend was progressively supplanted by Neo-Classicism.The layout of premises and organisation of amenities in Vanags’ projects were realised in line with the requirements of the time by providing maximum sunlight in the rooms and a window in every household premise in the large many-room apartments. As the layout of premises is conditioned by the commissioner’s means as well as the form and position of the building plot, Vanags’ apartment houses feature both typical and very original solutions for the period. Bays and risalits were used to diversify the building layout in the city centre, often creating a different layout for each storey of the house. During the period of Nordic National Romanticism, building façades show a laconic approach to ornamentation, largely applying a flat décor, often complemented with contrasting materials and types of finish. In some cases geometric ornament plastered on the façades is enriched with individual glazed tiles or mosaic. Looking at the building volumes of masonry apartment houses, some especially popular construction elements stand out, such as circular corner bays with dome-shaped roofing or open balcony, the use of chamfered and diverse triangular gables and massive closed balconies. Typical is the emphasis on entrance portals with a granite finish – initially rough granite rustication, later replaced by a smooth or even polished granite surface. Alongside interpretations of vernacular architecture and folk ornament, Vanags’ output includes elements inspired by Ancient Egypt, which is particularly evident in the house décor at 31 Blaumaņa Street. With bays and balconies of diverse forms, the architect added expressiveness to his building façades, most often using the principle of asymmetry typical of Art Nouveau. Bays (in rarer cases risalits) of Vanags’ buildings are crowned with triangular gables. They are usually small; sometimes several gables of identical or different forms are combined, thus emphasising the symmetrical axis of the building, or just the opposite, its asymmetry, like at 26 Ģetrūdes Street or 5 Avotu Street. Bearing in mind Vanags’ trips to Finland in 1905 and 1910, possible sources of influence may have been Lars Sonck’s Trikkosnen talo (1901) and the Helsinki Telephone Company building (1905) as well as the apartment building in Helsinki at 6 Pohjoinen Makasiinikatu (1901) designed by the office of Gesellius, Lindgren and Saarinen. These examples demonstrate expressive façade solutions with variously constructed bays and balconies, granite finish of apartment houses and references to Ancient Egyptian architecture in the form of massive, stylised lotus-shaped columns in the Telephone Company building. Among Vanags’ favourite decorative means, often combined with bays, was the division of the façade plane into areas of different colours or textures. Typical examples include the buildings at 7 Alauksta Street (1907), 158 Brīvības Street (1909) and 58 Brīvības Street (1906). Other architects of the time also used these techniques of façade décor as can be seen, for example, in the houses designed by Konstantīns Pēkšēns and Eižens Laube – M. Kļaviņa apartment house façade at 26 Aleksandra Čaka Street (1905), houses at 10 Kronvalda Boulevard (1907) and 27 Miera Street (1908). Vanags used to complement this combination of façade plastering with plastered-in ornaments – twin-ears, herringbones, grass-snakes, meanderings and zigzags, the sun motif and other geometric elements. Such solutions, including some cases of mosaic at 5 Avotu Street or 62 Krišjāņa Barona Street, are much more common in the finish of Vanags’ buildings in comparison with relief or sculptural décor that mainly emerged later in Neo-Classicist buildings. The typical Nordic National Romanticist granite finish on the ground floor level as well as the expressive finish of entrance portals in Vanags’ buildings ranges from early robust heaviness to smooth form during the transition period to Neo-Classicism. In some cases, the corner entrance is enhanced by an imposing granite column. This principle was used also in the architect’s late works, combined with Neo-Classicist means. During the transitional period lasting from 1910 to 1911, elements of Nordic National Romanticism and Neo-Classicism are used together. Vanags included individual decorative elements also in Riga’s suburban wooden houses, but they are largely reduced to small accents around window openings and linear contrasts of the façade boarding. An interesting example is the wooden building at 4/6 Matrožu Street where the asymmetrical arrangement of building volumes endows the façade with a pronounced Art Nouveau character. In his creativity, Vanags has successfully synthesised elements of different decorative or stylistic systems on a single façade, avoiding the heaviness at times typical of Nordic National Romanticism. The architect’s life was short but his great accomplishment in architecture and architectural theory reveals the diversity of a creative personality and an ability to be active in various fields still to be explored in future studies.
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Author analyses Russian map created in 1914 which presented the expected post-war borders in Europe. Its title was “Map of the Future Europe” and it outlined continent’s political frontiers that should be expected after defeating German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire by the Triple Entente (including Russia). The map is undoubtedly an exceptional work in terms of content and form, and its ideological message for many of the political events that took place in the twentieth century. Due to its originality is a historical document of considerable value, which should be the subject of further research by experts in the geo-political concepts and doctrines.
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Authors of “National Review (Polish: Przegląd Narodowy) presented political program of the National Democracy which preached the idea of two enemies of there born Poland: Germany and Russia. However, France was regarded as the most important partner for the Polish independent state. This point of view was concented with an idea of creating by Poland and France an alliance with Czechoslovakia, Romania Yugoslavia and the Baltic states and establishing a security system in Central-Eastern Europe.
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The Russian Revolution of 1905 disturbed not only the Russian literature, but also the YoungPoland. In the workers’ battles Polish people saw a chance to recover their own independence.Therefore, the images of revolution created by Russian and Polish writers differed significantly fromeach other. This article analyzes Niemojewski’s and Artsybashev’s revolutionary prose. Niemojewski glorifies revolutionaries. His heroes lay down their lives for freedom. Artsybashev discredits therevolution and argues that it does not make sense, because those who fight for freedom die and willnot experience it.
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International relations between Czechoslovakia and Poland were not at their best between 1918 and 1938. It was due to the contrary goals of both countries’ foreign policy and border dispute. The main theme of disagreement was perception of Russian matter. Czechoslovak politicians wanted Russia to become the main element of geopolitical order in post-war Europe, which would constitute a proper counter-balance for growing power of Germany. This is due to their lack of acceptance for possibility of creating an independent Ukrainian national state. In turn, one of the priority of Polish foreign policy was to break Russia into small nation states and the reduction of former tsarist empire to purely ethnic grounds. Grounds of Central Ukraine were supposed to play a crucial role here. A different vision of the political system in Central Europe and the competition for the role of a regional leader in this part of Old Continent should be also added to the discrepancies between the two counties. Czechoslovakia was largely responsible for the shape of the relationship with Poland. It was consequently trying to weaken Polish position on the international area and to destabilize its internal situation. One of the main tools of this policy became supporting of separatist tendencies and strengthening anti-Polish sentiment that was found among more than five million Ukrainian minority in Second Republic of Poland. At the same time, the policy was implemented in such a way that it did not lead to an open conflict with Poles. For this purpose they used the Ukrainian emigration environment located in Czechoslovakia, which was overwhelmingly hostile towards Poland and Poles and it also had significant influence on fellow countrymen residing there. It could also count on far-reaching assistance of Czechoslovak authorities and facilitations concerning cultural, educational, scientific, and especially political activities. In this environment were born independence organizations Ukrainian Military Organization and Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, which aim was to detach south-east lands from Poland with the tacit consent of Czechoslovak politicians.
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The article presents a disintegration of Austria-Hungary in the autumn of 1918. The author described the last two years of the existence of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. An important concept is the description of the eastern Swiss Minister for nationalities, Oskar Jászi`ego, as a desperate attempt to save the state: the negotiation of Transylvania with Romania in Arad and the Slovaks in the Slovak remain within Hungary. The author mentioned a manifesto of Karol I, whose aim was to preserve the state as possible on the basis of a federation – with the exception of Poles. Further described is the creation of Czechoslovakia and the situation in Slovakia during its occupation by the Czechoslovak army. In summary, author referred to the drama of CSR in the years 1938-1939, which was a consequence of the wrong nationality policies of the Governments of Czechoslovakia, resulting from the adoption in 1920 czechosłowakism rules, as a form of national assimilation of many ethnic minorities who lived in CSR.
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