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Ivan Shishmanov put the foundations and developed the Italian language, culture and literature. In this article the author exposes his accomplishments in this sphere and how he achieved them.
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Proceedings of the International Conference which are debating various aspects of theBucharest Peace Treatment of 1812. 200 years of annexation Bessarabia by Russian Empire
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Prvotni franjevački samostan u Kraljevoj Sutjesci podignut je najvjerojatnije u prvoj polovici 14. stoljeća. Samostan je bio izložen stradanjima i rušenju vjerojatno već 1463. godine, ali je već 1469. aktivan. Između 1521-1524. opet je porušen, no uporni fratri su ga ponovo podigli uz velike poteškoće. Posebno je burna povijest Bosne, pa onda i ovog područnog samostana u 17. i 18. stoljeću. Bilo je to doba ratovanja između Turske i Austrije. Podsjećamo da tada dolazi do prvih velikih poraza Osmanlija od strane vojski europskih vladara. Prvi od njih je poraz pod Siskom 1593. godine. Slijedi četrnaestogodišnji rat 1593-1606. godine iza kojega Osmanlije ustupaju dio svojih teritorija Austriji. Potom dolazi do Kandijskog rata 1645-1669. godine između Osmanlija i Mlečana. Opet Osmanlije gube teritorije koje su držali u Dalmaciji. Tu je i Bečki rat – 1683-1699. godine, koji je završen mirom u Sremskim Karlovcima 22. siječnja 1699. godine. Njime je posve dokrajčena osmanlijska premoć u Europi. Izgubili su Ugarsku, najveći dio Hrvatske, te neke dijelove istočne i jugoistočne Europe. Osmanlije se ne mire s tim, te traže povoda za nove sukobe i s Mlečanima i s Austrijom. Do njih i dolazi. Ponovo je ishod nepovoljan za njih. Mir je sklopljen u Požarevcu 1718. godine uz nove teritorijalne gubitke za Osmanlije. Austriji rastu apetiti i za Bosnom te pokreće Banjalučki rat 1737-1739. godine, gubi ga i sklapa mir u Beogradu 1739. Osmanlije vraćaju teritorije koje su bili izgubili u Bosni i u Srbiji.
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Odgoj srca i uma kroz povijest Crkve i Franjevačkog reda zauzima prvo mjesto u odgoju svećeničko-redovničkih pripravnika. Škola je tu radi čovjeka kako bi mu pomogla da upozna, razumije i nadvlada teškoće svijeta u kojem živi. Ona ima zadatak formirati čovjeka u njegovoj stvarnosti konačnog subjekta koji teži beskonačnom. Još za života Franjo Asiški je dopustio bratu Antunu Padovanskom da poučava braću u Sv. pismu.2 Već 1214. imamo u Bologni učilište u Franjevačkom redu, potom u Parizu braća 1224. grade kuću a 1231. u Parizu počinje poučavati fra Aleksandar Haleški i od učilišta nastaje javno učilište tj. sveučilište. Godine 1224. devetorica franjevaca studenata različitih narodnosti Francuza, Engleza, Talijana odlaze iz Pariza na čelu s fra Anđelom iz Pize u Oxford i iz svog malog samostana pohađali su predavanja na Univerzitetu. Druga skupina franjevačkih novaka stigla je u Cambridge, iako je živjela u malenim siromašnim kućicama, rado je slušala predavanja fra Roberta Grossatesta. U Njemačkoj su u isto vrijeme nastala franjevačka učilišta u Magdeburgu na Elbi, zatim u Strasburgu, Hildesheimu, Augsburgu, Regensburgu itd. Franjevački život Manje braće bio je plodonosan za znanost koja traži slobodu srca, slobodu od pohlepe za dobitkom, za nasladama i za častima, jer nesebična ljubav omogućuje traganje za istinom.
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Ahdnama bosanskih franjevaca je temeljni dokument, kojim je islamskoosmanski zakonodavac legitimirao prisutnost i djelovanje bosanskih franjevaca u Osmanskom carstvu nakon osvojenja Bosanskog Kraljevstva 1463. Povijest toga dokumenta jednako je burna kao i povijest bosanskih franjevaca i njihovih samostana. Kao ni brojni franjevački samostani i crkve, ni Ahdnama u svom izvornom obliku nije preživjela paljevine i ratna razaranja. Naime, original Ahdname je negdje izgorio ili nestao na neki drugi način. Uz nekoliko prijepisa i prijevoda sačuvao se i jedan rekonstruirani oblik toga dokumenta, koji je u političkom i pravnom pogledu fungirao kao original. U prvom dijelu ovoga priloga napravljen je osvrt na političke prilike i pravni okvir u kojima je Ahdnama nastala; drugi dio posvećen je stručnim paleografskim i diplomatičkim analizama s naglaskom na paralelama između Fojničke ahdname i sličnih dokumenata; treći dio bavi se političkim stanjem katoličanstva pod osmanskom vlašću u 16. i 17. st. odnosno Ahdnamom u političkoj praksi. Prilog završava s kratkim zapažanjem o Ahdnami kao metafori za kojom se poseže u suvremenoj BiH, i to tako da se – uz ostalo i na temelju toga dokumenta - na jednoj strani idealizira osmansko razdoblje bh. povijesti, a na drugoj to isto razdoblje demonizira.
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Povijesnom istraživanju bilo kojega prostora ili zajednice može se pristupiti na različite načine i može se istraživati različite oblasti života i djelovanja čovjeka u nekom prostoru. Pristup koji je zastupljen u ovome prilogu bilo je istraživanje podrijetla imena pojedinih lokaliteta na prostoru župe Guča Gora. Cilj je bio pomoći drugim istraživačima iz različitih grana znanosti da dobiju početnu sliku i da nepotrebno ne gube vrijeme na lociranju interesantnih ciljeva za svoj rad. Prije svih željelo se pomoći arheolozima i etnolozima - etnografima. Za rad je, uglavnom, korištena građa koja se nalazi u zemljišnim knjigama suda u Travniku (Gruntovnici), a posebice onaj dio građe, koji je nastajao prigodom izrade prvih zemljišnih knjiga 1892. godine. Osim toga dio građe prikupljen je radom na terenu. Očekujemo da ovaj prilog povijesti župe Guča Gora nju barem malo više osvijetli jer tko ju pozornije pročita, kao da pred sobom ima živu povijest kroz nazive njiva i livada na kojima ovi ljudi žive. Nas su nazivi lokaliteta upućivali na postojanje zgrada, putova, crkava ili molitvišta, grobalja, načine privređivanja, zanimanje pučanstva i slično. Osim toga, sporadično smo se dotaknuli i nekih drugih pitanja kao što su nestanak i nastanak nekih prezimena, vlasničkih odnosa u to vrijeme, te povijesti nastanka samih zemljišnih knjiga. Potenciramo vrijednost ove građe posebice za one koji se bave poviješću kraja XIX. stoljeća i XX., a posebice pitanjem društvenih odnosa toga vremena.
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The article constitutes an attempt at analyzing the figure of the labyrinth, which has existed in the Western culture since antiquity until the present times. The author follows the conception of the labyrinth based upon the assumption that even in the oldest civilizations, the labyrinth was conceived of as more than just a structure. Entering a labyrinth involved an inherent change in the ontological situation of the external world, subjected to the complex process of crossing the threshold. This architectural curiosity has continued to intrigue scholars and artists across the ages, becoming at the same time a reflection of the dominant intellectual, cultural and social trends at the time. The labyrinth, then, emerges as a construct which describes the external world. According to that assumption, in the second part of the article, the concept of the labyrinth is used to describe the postmodern reality.
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Bádanie o aristokracii Uhorského kráľovstva nepatrilo v Maďarsku v druhej polovici 20. storočia medzi preferované témy. S výnimkou Rakúska však to nebolo inak ani na Slovensku, dokonca ani v Chorvátsku či v Rumunsku, kde sa dodnes uchovávajú časti rodových archívov viacerých rodov, ktoré zohrali rozhodujúcu úlohu v dejinách krajiny. Kým za necelých sto rokov od druhej polovice 19. storočia bola o najznámejších rodoch vydaná celá rada monografi í a pramenných edícií (predovšetkým v maďarskom jazyku o rodoch Balassi, Batthyány, Csáky, Esterházy, Forgách, Illésházy, Nádasdy, Pálffy, Rákóczi, Thurzo a Zrínyi), od konca 40. rokov 20. storočia sa pozornosť bádateľov zamerala predovšetkým na hospodársku činnosť príslušníkov magnátskych rodov. V súvislosti s Thurzovcami treba spomenúť zásadné hospodársko-historické práce Petra Ratkoša a Mariána Skladaného zo Slovenska a Karen Lambrecht z Nemecka.
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V marci 1530 Alexej Thurzo takto spomínal na rozhodujúce obdobie po bitke pri Moháči: „Potom, ako sa vznešenému pánovi dostalo na vedomie, že kráľ Ľudovít blahej pamäti zahynul, pokúsili sa ma tak poľský kráľ [Žigmund I. Jagelovský], ako aj vojvoda Ján [Zápoľský] ponukami mnohých odmien nahovoriť na to, aby som sa pripojil k nim, ale vznešená pani kráľovná Mária, sestra jeho veličenstva, ma stále naliehavejšie prosila a žiadala, aby som sa pridal na stranu jeho veličenstva, pričom mi naznačovala, že ak sa záležitosť bude šťastne vyvíjať pre jeho veličenstvo, nik sa nebude tešiť väčšej priazni a nebude viac odmenený, ako ja. Tak som sa, nevšímajúc si iných, pridal k jeho veličenstvu“. O rok neskôr zase napísal kráľovi Ferdinandovi I. nasledujúce: „Verte mi, vaše Veličenstvo, že ak by som sa nebol tak verne držal vášho Veličenstva, záležitosti vášho Veličenstva by boli v Uhorskom kráľovstve nabrali už viackrát iný smer“.
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Jedálny lístok neskoršieho palatína Stanislava Thurzu, ako jediný zachovaný podobný prameň z obdobia raného novoveku, podrobili analýze už viacerí bádatelia, alebo ho využili vo svojich prácach so širším zameraním. Napriek tomu má tento prameň opodstatnenie aj v tejto publikácii, najmä z toho dôvodu, že na základe tohto jedálneho lístka môžeme získať viac informácií o stravovacích zvykoch Thurzovcov. Aj napriek tomu, že tento dokument je v podstate ukážkou stravovania len jedného člena rodu a len počas jedného mesiaca, predsa je tento už dobre známy jedálny lístok najvhodnejší na to, aby sme mohli vytvoriť podrobnejší obraz o stravovacích zvykoch na dvore Thurzovcov. V relatívne dobre zachovaných thurzovských archívoch sa nachádza množstvo hospodárskych dokumentov, a medzi nimi je množstvo takých, ktoré obsahujú aj údaje o stravovaní. Ich dôkladná analýza by však bola možná len v práci väčšieho rozsahu. Problémom je, že v mnohých prípadoch ani nevieme určiť, kde boli písomnosti vyhotovené, u ďalších ich zase nevieme datovať. Zoznamy nákupov alebo surovín, nakúpených pre potreby kuchyne, sa samy o sebe dajú len ťažko využiť, a tiež nie je jednoduché nájsť k nim ďalšie pramene viažuce sa k tej istej osobe a tomu istému času.
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In concordance with her biological function and social position, the woman in the early modern period underwent three basic states - virginity, matrimony and widowhood. Medieval society had the state of virginity in high esteem; however, this status was reserved only for chosen ones. The others were to live - unless they wanted to resist Christian morality - in matrimony, which had been gaining respect especially in the teaching of Protestant theologians since the beginning of the 16th century. The most contradictory category of womanhood was widowhood. Early modern widows were subjects to broad scale of public opinions and life opportunities that ranged from those of respect and freedom to those of derision and scorn. The most relevant work devoted to the fate of women was Vidua Christiana by Erasmus of Rotterdam, who wrote it for Maria Habsburg. Jan Kherner from Pilsen translated the book into Czech in 1595 and added many valuable domestic observations of the situation. How, according to Erasmus should a decent Christian widow behave? The house of a widow should be kept clean and tidy. He also meant that it should be spiritually pure and free of worldly joys. Management of the household and estates left to a widow by her late husband was considered as one of her most important duties. Danger came in the form of various greedy and mercenary men, for who widows represented frequent and easy prey. Great stress was put on a distinctive function of clothes. Noble women wore mourning clothes usually for couple of weeks, but there were widows who were in deep mourning until the end of their lives. In the same time, also theologians of the Union of Brethren dealt with social position of widows. In their Decrees they delineated ideal conduct of widows. For example, they were to be modest, wear plain clothes and pray regularly. Brother Lucas (Lukas), one of the leading figures of the Union from the beginning of the 16th century, distinguished two types of widows. Brothers from the Union community were supposed to take care of those over sixty, who should be supported by Union common money. The younger ones were expected to take care of themselves or they marry. Generally, however, Lucas was not in favour of the second marriage. Under the burden of his tragic life, Jan Amos Comenius wrote about the sad fate of widows and widowers in his work 0 sirobe (1634). His recommendations to widows included sexual abstinence, cautiousness in choosing a new husband and if possible, not to marry again. The Czech law deals explicitly with marital gifts in the marriage contracts. A marriage contract of a future husband and wife included provisions for the wife if the man should die first. Usually, men added one third of their property. Nevertheless, although the law was clear about the marital gifts, they were repeatedly neglected. The wording of marriage contracts was reflected also in last wills of nobles. Husbands would bequeath marital gifts to their wives and often more than that. They would also allocate a house or a residence in which their wives were to live after their deaths. Often these provisions were granted to women only until the time they remarried, though sometimes even to the end of their lives. A noble widow could retain her social and material status by being appointed a legal representative of her fatherless children and an administrator of her late husbands' property. In practice, it meant that the property was at a widow's free disposal without need of authorization from the land courts. For some young widows death of their husbands was a beginning of a new life stage. For the first time in their life they became seemingly and relatively independent and free to govern their own life. Whereas it was her father, brothers or tutors who decided about her future before she married or her husband after the wedding, a widow depended only on her financial means and public opinion. The position of noble widows was rather contradictory in the early modern period. On the one hand, a widow was protected by traditional Christian morality and law clauses and on the other, she had to cope with the negative image of widowhood created by contemporary moralists on the basis of a few specific cases. Sometimes the problems of inheritance division and coexistence would push a widow even to a court trial with her late husband's relatives.
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There have been few stereotypes in Hungarian historiography concerning the period of the Ottoman occupation or early modern period dating that originated mostly in the 19th century. Farkas Deák was one of the first historians who realized the importance of the sources for history of women and started using them. He published women's correspondence and wrote their biographies. He attempted to portray Hungarian aristocratic women as perfect faithful wives, loving and caring mothers, diligent housewives, good Christians and educated persons. This image is however the embodiment of an ideal woman from the author's times, that is the second half of the 19th century. In fact, the image was already archaic in the times when it was created. The author analyses and illustrates the notion of a 'diligent housewife' on the background of the social situation of the 17th century. Is it not an anachronism to talk about housewives in connection with aristocracy? The basic problem is to define the contents of the term 'women’s work’. Whereas the 'men’s work' is well defined and framed in time and space (e.g, politics or military service has concrete meaning), it is difficult to find a definition for 'women's work'. Women's work is something that men do not do. To simplify it, we can say that women's sphere is the family, household and child bearing.The archbishop of Esztergom Peter Pázmány, a great figure of the Catholic reform in the 17th century paid a special attention to education of Christian girls in his collection of sermons. Girls were supposed to learn how to spin, weave, embroider, tie nets, and lead a good, honest and useful life. The women were expected to sit at home, talk to God and - as a sign of their gratitude - to cook tasty dishes for their husbands. Other authors expressed the same opinion about house-hold duties as the proper occupation for women. Apart from the Pázmány‘s writings, there were other works dealing with education of girls and behaviour of women, for instance “Horologii principium” by Antonio Guevara published in Graz in 1610. A typical example of aristocratic estates managing women was Elizabeth Báthory. She was in charge of the Nádasdy‘s estates and when she defied some maltreatment of their property, she was just doing what contemporaries expected a woman in her position to do. She administered the estates and the household, protected the property of her late husband and took care of her subjects. Elizabeth Rákoczi, though not a widow as Elizabeth Báthory, was often left alone in charge of the family estates. She did not have a special training in estates management, but her education, practicality and experience made her an efficient manager. She was acquainted with inventories and tolls and was even familiar with efficient technological methods for agricultural production. In order to evaluate and analyse economic abilities and competence of Hungarian aristocratic women in the 17th century, more comparative case studies would be needed.
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Violence on women is a problem deeply rooted in society, a phenomenon formed by power relations between the sexes as well as by social institutions. The idea of dominance of men had prevailed in most of societies and was reflected in their laws and customs. The attitude of men towards women has been always controversial, oscillating between attraction and loathe, fascination and hatred. The cause of many negative feelings was fear - stemming from ignorance and differences between sexes. Such conflicting feelings are present in biblical Judaism as well as in Greek and Roman classical literature. Later, Christian theologians as well as medical science contributed greatly to this process. Lawyers quoted the law to justify women's inferior status. In literature, women were either idealised or denounced.According to modern studies, there are four correlations that contribute to the occurrence of gender violence: 1.habit of violent solution of conflicts, 2. economic differences between men and women, 3. masculine ideal of dominance, 4. economic and decision-making authority of men in the family. The situation in the early modern Hungary was particularly critical. In the world with ubiquitous threat of losing one’s life, violence became a form of survival. It is in this light that the shift from traditional norms such as brotherly love, towards rough treatment and violence in interpersonal behaviour should be explained. Apart from physical aggression on women, there are other forms of behaviour, such as mental cruelty, humiliation in the public or enforced compliance with demands of the stronger that are classified as violent. Violent offenders were primarily a woman’s next of kin - husband, father, mother, siblings or other relatives - mainly her legal representatives, but also her own children or stepchildren. Apart from them, it was also officials, such as judges on all levels, who used or abused their power. Most violence happened at home. What was happening behind the closed doors of one’s home was considered to be one’s own business and there was usually no need of the intervention from outside. Sanctions against harming one’s wife were not explicitly stated in the law and therefore such cases would appear in court only occasionally, mostly when it led to a tragic end. The author tries to describe forms of violence, aggression and harm on women and ways of solving and addressing the problem according to contemporary mentality. Widespread defence against violence was magic. Women would contact a supposed witch or hex in order to find out how to make their men stop beating them. Sometimes magic was used as prevention against violence, right after wedding. Another way out was running away or separation. Catholic Church since the council of Trent recognized cruel treatment of women by their husbands as sufficient cause for separation, though only temporary. Neither was it easy to achieve separation or divorce in Protestant or in Reformed Churches. It is apparent from cases cited in the paper, that such solution was exceptional. Nevertheless, if a divorce petitioner was a prominent person who can afford to pay for it, their cases were treated more leniently, and not quite in line with the usual procedure, though even then the process was rather difficult. What was the position of a woman after divorce? According to Hungarian hereditary law, only few women were lucky to own such real estates that they could live on. A divorced or separated woman usually remained in ligam that means that she was not quite free until her ex-husbanďs death. One of the options was to go back to her parents J place or to other relatives, but it usually amounted to a servant-like position. Perhaps the only decent solution was to withdraw into the seclusion of a convent.There was no solution to the majority of cases of domestic violence, so women continued to suffer. Occasionally the family concerned about the public opinion would step in and try to resolve the conflict.
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The law did not specify legal position of serf women in the modern period. It dealt only with serf men. Nevertheless, a serf woman as the head of a household or managing a farm was not an exceptional occurrence. Such women were subject to the same laws and customs as serf men. Similarly, they were restricted in their right to move away from the territory of their landlord. Women managing farms were usually widows. Some widows did not continue with managing the farm that belonged to their late husbands, but there were exceptions who would run the farm together with their sons and even those who took over all the duties and obligations connected to the management of the farm (corveé, taxes and in kind). Even if women succeeded in running a farm, it was not always advantageous for them. Their obligations to the landlord were not decreased if they had small children, though rearing children was time-consuming and obviously meant further duties. It was more advantageous for a widow to be a landless serf. Serfs of the same status were equal not only in their duties, but they were all equally punished for their possible offences and entitled to the same level of financial rewards for their agricultural work. A serf woman did not have much opportunity to decide freely about her life. She had to adjust to the customs and try not to violate them so she would not be excluded from the village community. In all the important matters, it was the landlord who wielded the clout.
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U Portugaliji je 1975. godine kontrarevolucija bila sama revolucija, zatočena u ponavljanje svojih obrazaca, u odsustvu teorijskog rada pobornika pretvorenih u vojnike, koji su se poduhvatili da, još jedanput, gestom kolekcionara, ponovo ožive praktična iskustva Lenjina, Trockog, i, u novije vreme, Rosela ili generala Klisrea, koji su im bili poznati iz kolonijalnog rata. Tim povodom Žan Danijel se zapitao: “Šta bi zaista mogla da znači ideja avangarde potpuno odvojene od masa, oslonjene samo na manjinu oružane sile?”.
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Medieval epigraphs written in Arabic and found in the Middle Volga region provide some very important historical evidence for any student of the regional history. For they preserved an important page of the medieval written culture. The authors address a corpus of Arabic inscriptions made on stones in the first half of the 16th century, identified during the excavations on the territory of the Kazan Kremlin in the early 2000s. Fragments of stones stored in the Museum of Archaeology (Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Tatarstan) contain some fragments of texts in Arabic, including fragments of words and some separate letters. The paper describes the context in which these inscriptions were revealed and offers a reading of the texts on stones. Specific usages of these stones are suggested. Some fragments could be architectural elements.
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The published correspondence reveals the dimension of cooperation and the community of dynastic, political, cultural, and religious interests between the House of Vasa and the House of Austria. It provides the basis for analyzing mutual relations in terms of affinity, emulation, and rivalry. Editing the letters creates a kind of catalog showcasing the role and identity of the Vasas in the extensive European cultural and political context and can serve as a starting point for further studies. One of the most important instruments through which we can observe and analyze these processes is the letters exchanged between members of both dynasties. Royal letters with signatures, seals, and their content are a lasting testament to the presence and role of Poland in European culture in the early modern era.
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