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Adatközlés egy Porolissumon előkerült síroltárról
Due to the Necropolis Porolissensis Project, beginning with the year 2006, systematic archaeological research has been undertaken in the Roman cemetery of Porolissum (Dacia Porolissensis), known as the necropolis from the “Ursoieși Hill”. During the excavations from 2008, on a 10x10 m surface (Trench J) 19 cremation graves were discovered together with fragments belonging to various funerary monuments. Amongst them, we discovered a funerary altar with truncated pyramid coping. The body of the altar was found collapsed near the rectangular stone masonry foundation. Its frontal side, containing the two panels of inscription and decoration, was exfoliated and broken in 3 larger fragments. The separated coping was found next to it. From the typological point of view, the monument belongs to the category of funerary altars with profiled framing on the body, while the coping belongs to the type known as: “truncated pyramid shaped coping with straight sides”. It is worth mentioning that this is the only pyramid shaped coping with straight edges discovered, at the moment, in the province of Dacia, all the other examples belong to the variant with curved sides. The epitaph is displayed in two panels: the main one on the shaft of the altar contains the names of the deceased (one name is still preserved), while the second panel of inscription, placed on the base of the monument (in a tabula ansata) contains the name, social position and job of the person who erected and dedicated the monument. Owing to the fact that the surface of the altar is heavily damaged the inscription is only partially readable. Still, after detailed investigations we managed to retrieve some information on one of the deceased, as well as on the dedicator. According to the inscription’s text, one of the deceased bares the name of Cleopatra and her death occurred at the age of 7 years. No other information was available from the main inscription field. However, following the calculations on the inscription panel and letters’ size we can assume the presence of other 2, maybe 3, more names amongst the deceased peoples to whom the monument was erected and dedicated. From the text on the second panel (the tabula ansata), we find out, that the dedicator was named Martinus, and that he was a slave working for the customs office of the town – ver(na) et vil(icus). Considering, that the name of the father is not mentioned next to that of the deceased (as it normally should) we presume a parental relationship between the two. On the base of archaeological and stylistic criteria (the flat relief), the monument can be dated in the 2nd century, a more precise dating could not be obtained.
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Our study analyses the 18th century Marosvásárhely (Târgu-Mures) craftsman society through an approach from the perspective of architectural history based on archival sources, and with special emphasis on the development of the status of masons, not ignoring however the situation of carpenters, joiners, locksmiths and potters, who were in close relation with the construction industry. The results of the study unequivocally state that from the mid 18th century onwards there is a definite headcount increase within the construction industry and pertaining to this, within masonry as well. A key role in this process is held by the mostly German craftsmen migrating to the city. Their linguistic and religious separation makes them clearly distinguishable within the society of the city in this period, bringing thus validation and also a special connotation to the concept of “Craftsman Circle”. Hence, the linguistically isolated, mostly Catholic immigrants (especially in the first decades) have necessarily formed a sort of separated community in the predominantly Hungarian and typically reformat society of the city. We must emphasize that the immigration processes in Marosvásárhely are in line with the contemporary phenomena specified by Margit B. Nagy in other Transylvanian cities such as Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca) or Szamosújvár (Gherla). In comparison with Kolozsvár discrepancy can be determined only in the intensity of immigration (number of the immigrants) or in the temporal distribution of the process. The Baroque patterns have permanently spread in Marosvásárhely as a result of the activity of these craftsmen. Arriving from Austria, Bavaria, Silesia, Hungary and from various regions of the German linguistic areas, these craftsmen had already been familiar with the forms and technical solutions of the Baroque, and this knowledge was continuously refreshed and enriched by other influences (even if springing from similar artistic roots) of the various craftsman centers of Transylvania, here it is enough if we mention Anton Schuchbauer working at the Toldalagi-palace, or Romanus Lehr the stucco-modeler from Szamosújvár, or the inevitable import of the products delivered by the stone-cutter workshops from Kolozsvár. Being aware of the rather obsolete architectural circumstances previously prevailing in Marosvásárhely, these immigrants, bearers of a new kind of architectural knowledge, must unquestionably be considered factors of modernization. This basically Late Baroque architectural tradition established due to the 18th century craftsmen was afterwards successfully conserved and prevailed firmly in the city even in the first decades of the 19th century.
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The article is first studied in the historiography of the problem of import from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the context of the consumer revolution in the USSR. The author gives primary attention to questions of the quality of goods of the mass demand. In the course of a study clerical documents and statistical materials from the Russian State Archive of Economy and State Archive of the Russian Federation were used, and also the published memoirs and works of literature. The author shows that the purchases of imports within the framework of Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON), expanded in 1950s, had great significance in the consumption structure of Soviet citizens. Foot-wear, clothing, furniture, household goods from socialist countries partly compensated scarcity on the domestic market. The quality of these products, however, not always corresponded to the highest standards, deliveries were achieved in violation of contractual obligations on the assortment, the timing, the seasonality. The government was forced to create the multi-stage system of control, intended to prevent the penetration into the retail network of substandard things. However, piety before the import was formed independently of its consumer properties, being the component of the mythical means of the West.
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The author’s attention is focused on the interior and the ten caryatids of the royal tomb at the village of Sveshtari. The female figures are seen as characters of a funerary cult, bearers of the celestial canopy above the buried, divine or mortal – leading the dead as heroi to the world beyond. According to the author the tomb is dated to the very end of the first or the beginning of the second quarter f the 3rd century BC and was prepared for a Getan ruler.
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The paper examines the coin hoards and the single finds related to the supposed Getic capital of Helis and the territory of the Getic state. The material emphasises issues of Macedonian royal types, of civic types and local imitations. Trade contacts with the Black Sea colonies, Southern Thrace, etc. are attested both by coins and other import, pointing to the integration of the Getic economy to that of the Greek cities and the royal economy of Lysimachos. This resulted in the penetration of some Greek cults into Getica, such as (Hekate) Phosphoros, Dionysos, Bellerophon and Pegasos. The ruler cult and the after-life ideology related to the Getic king buried in the tomb of Sveshtari, probably Dromichaites, followed in general the model of the diadochoi.
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The subject of present study is the socio-economic outlook of the Russian emigration to Bulgaria as revealed by the 1920 and 1926 Bulgarian population censuses. The quantitative analysis of these census data gives the opportunity to examine in details Russian emigration’s labor activity, social structure and participation of its labor resources in various sectors, sub-sectors, professional groups and individual crafts of post-war Bulgarian economy and especially to delineate Russian women’s place in Bulgaria labor market, their social role. In the first part of the study investigated the literacy level, economic activity coefficient and sex structure of Russian immigrants’ economic activity, and in the second one – its social structure based on status in employment and occupational distribution within the social groups. Russian immigrants’ (sub)sectoral employment was predetermined by the (sub)sectoral development of the Bulgarian economy in whose structure dominated agriculture, and in industry – light industry (food and textile ones). Despite these realities about half of the Russian immigrants worked in industry, which was due to the post-war boom in some of its branches. In the initial period of their coming to Bulgaria the next in line sector, where they found jobs, was agriculture, but in 1926 we see them in public service- and liberal professions. As it concerns the social structure of the Russian diaspora in Bulgaria within it prevailed the workers – about 70% that was in contrast to the Bulgarian society, where its share was not large (but growing); the proportion of Russian workers in the entire working class in Bulgaria was small (0,6%). Russian workers were most numerous in agriculture and coal mines, but their share was most essential in the construction of roads, bridges and railways, maritime transport, metal mines, salt works, production of vegetable oils, livestock trade. Employees among Russians were around 15% (1926); their relative share within all employees in Bulgaria was much larger – they constituted more than 2% of them. Their biggest share was in the professional groups of dentists and dental technicians (17%), engineers (14%), doctors (12%), musical artists (10%). Independent, self-employees were few in Bulgarian society, among Russians even less – with a downward trend; remarkably, the latter were more in the variation of Russian women than within the one of Russian men. In distinction from the typical for Bulgaria female employment in agriculture, thanks to their high literacy and education, the Russian immigrant women found job performance mainly in public service- and liberal professions, and by mid-1920s they had already entered industrial production.
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Over the past sixty years Ottomanists, researchers of local history, church historians, numismatists managed by their research to unveil to a large extent the history of Anchialo in the period from the end of 15th to the 17th century. Adamandios Diamandopoulos, Bistra Tsvetkova Elena Grozdanova, Ivan Tyutyundzhiev, Krasimir Krastev, Ventsislav Karavalchev and others are among the most prominent researchers working in this direction. Anchialo past falls albeit at the margins of scientific research of other great names in domestic and foreign historiography such as Nikolay Todorov and Mustafa T. Gyokbilgin. The interest of scientists was prompted by the significant role that the town played in the Black Sea region, then controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Anchialo is the center of extensive kaaza, spiritual center, an important port and one of the largest salt-producing centers in the Ottoman Empire. Studies on Anchialo show in depth its economic, demographic and political development during the Ottoman domination, and are contribution to the scientific disclosure of the historical picture of the Balkans in the 15th – 17th century.
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The old buildings of the Reformed College in Marosvásárhely (Târgu-Mureș, RO) were significant role players in the Transylvanian protestant public education, but proved to be less functional for educational institutions at the early 20th century. The directorate of the college commissioned a leader of the government’s architectural program, the Budapest based architect Sándor Baumgarten (1864–1928), to propose a project for the new building. He realized the project plans between 1906–1908, and the construction took place between 1908–1909. This study pursues the so far unknown construction process and interior furnishing of the main building, investigating reports from the directorate meetings of the school, documentations related to the abundant planning material. Thanks to rich written resources and the well preserved furnishing, the assembly hall is discussed in an individual chapter as it is the most ambitiously created, organic Art Nouveau interior of the building. Baumgarten took into consideration the local conditions of the site, as well as the expectations of the directorate when planning the building. As a follower of Ödön Lechner applied the national style, borrowing design elements and patterns from the Hungarian Art Nouveau style. To carry out the construction plans, young Lajos Csiszár, a building contractor from Marosvásárhely was commissioned, along with other local craftsmen. The foundation stone was celebrated on September 10th, 1908, with the construction procedures coming to an end in the autumn of 1909. The inauguration took place in June 1911, once the annexed buildings (primary school, sports-court), both planned by engineer Győző Nagy, and the renovation of the 19th century boarding school were completed. The three storey central building has a U-shaped layout. The unity of its wings is given by the characteristic execution of the facades and the harmoniously applied details. The various fixtures of the building (fences, chandelier etc.), the interior furnishings and the annexed building all celebrate the talent of engineer Győző Nagy. He applied the style of Baumgarten in the design of the furniture belonging to the directorate’s office and the teaching room, and took significant responsibility in shaping the assembly hall too. (The furnishing of the assembly hall dating back to 1910 was complemented in the interwar period with furniture that animated the ornamental language of their Art Nouveau ancestors, while keeping the integrity of its interior style.) The project received a governmental support of three-hundred thousand crowns, but its expenses reached almost half a million crowns by the time its construction and interior furnishing had been completed. With its neat floor plan, inner division striving for functionality, luminous rooms, wide and airy passageways, the building complex is a representative work of this architectural programme. The style and execution of details recall the features of the rest of the gymnasiums planned by Baumgarten (from Zilah/Zalău, Rozsnyó/Râșnov, Máramaros/Sighetu Marmației [RO], etc). However, by being an assignment and investment of the church, and thanks to its adaptation to the irregular, sloping site and local context of the already existing buildings, this work has contributed to the achievement of an original and independent work of Sándor Baumgarten in Marosvásárhely. The building-complex founded in the early 20th century hosts today the Reformed College and the Bolyai Farkas Theoretical High School.
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The article analyzes the issue of creating an international commission to control the Danube River after World War II. The issue was raised and discussed in the political talks between the victors on the level of statesmen and diplomats together with the preparation of the peace treaties. Along with this, the diplomats discussed the general principles and waterways in Europe and the revitalization of the movement of river transport for the economic recovery of the European countries.
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The article traces the policy for preparation of engineering and business professionals in Bulgaria in the second half of the 1940s and in the 1950s in connection with the needs of economic recovery and structural reforms as well as the beginning of the accelerated industrialization of the country. For this purpose, the number of students admitted in higher engineering and agricultural and economic institutes increased extensively. These processes took place under severe political struggle, which, together with the immediate and long-term economic objectives laid down the policy of the Communist Party for the preparation of engineering and business professionals. This policy had special features such as: criteria for selection of students - initially it was political loyalty, subsequently - the worker-peasant origin; establishment of specialized technical institutes; introduction of ideological disciplines; studying the Russian language; increasing the number of young teachers while maintaining some of the old; establishment of new forms and units for training of senior staff - part time and evening courses, workers departments, higher party school, sending people to study in the USSR; manufacturing practice. However, senior staff selected and trained in this way in the 1940s and 1950s sought to realize their new status of technical intelligentsia, not the workers university graduates for immediate production, as was the purpose of the ruling Communist Party in organization of higher technical education.
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The main purpose of the research is to highlight some aspects of the science and technology policy of the state in Bulgaria under the State Socialism. The focus of the study is put on the analysis of three main aspects of the science policy in Bulgaria: the formulation of the science and technology strategy, the establishment of the organizational and institutional framework of the Innovation process by a various political activities undertaken by the state government and the general impact of the science, technology and innovation development on the social economic condition of the country. Following the Soviet experience in the organization and planning of the scientific development in most of the East European countries including Bulgaria, there were established public institutions for planning and management of the R&D process in order to strengthen the close relationship between scientific and technological developments and their implementation in the industrial production. There are four types of organizational structures that play a key role in the innovation process that can be distinguished in the Bulgarian economic system. These are the production companies, sectorial ministries, research and development institutes and other government agencies. At the same time we can outline two types of organizational relationships between these entities and they are, on a vertical, and a horizontal level. The main institutions covering those four types of structures, running the organization and management of the innovation process in Bulgaria are The State Committee For Science and Technical Progress, Bulgarian Academy of Science, The State Planning Committee and the Institute of Inventions and Innovations.To these, we must add and some public organizations with corporate image that also play an important role in the implementation of the scientific and technological results – The Scientific and Technical Unions and the Union of Scientists, the Trade unions, under whose auspices are organized so called „socialist brigades for technical progress“; The “Komsomol” organization that became the basis for the creation of „movement for scientific and technical creativity of youth“ – TNTM. “Due to the scientific and technological policy at the end of 80s in Bulgaria had been established large scale for the country size, production base, providing significant production in high-tech activities mainly for export to the economic zone of the CMEA. This base was mainly concentrated in major economic associations specialized in computing, electronics and microelectronics, chemical industry, military industry, as well as in the experimental production of some universities and institutional R&D units as well as the research institutes of the Bulgarian Academy of Science. The research has been carried out almost entirely on the basis of unpublished documents from the archive of Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, the archive from the Council of Ministers, the documentation of the State Committee for Science and Technical Progress as well as the archives of COMECON.
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The author analyses the instructions included in the testaments of the burghers fromDanzig and Elbing, written in the second half of the 15th and at the beginning of the 16thcenturies. After going through the pious legacies made by merchants and members of thetown’s elite it may be claimed that the instructions in the testaments are quite similar asfar as the numbers and amounts of the legacies are concerned; the legacies are made tolocal parish churches, monastic orders, towns’ hospitals and the poor. It was also quitecommon to give legacies to church institutions situated outside the towns where the benefactors lived; for example, the monastic complex of the Carthusian Order called Mary’s Paradise (Polish: Raj Maryi) in Kartuzy (German: Karthaus) and mendicant orders inthe State of the Teutonic Order in Prussia (merchants from Danzig and Elbing) and inRoyal Prussia (merchants from Elbing alone), which – in exchange for that – offered thebenefactors a prayer and Masses for their souls and the ones of their families. Such obligations were consciously published in many places simultaneously, in an attempt to additionally secure prayers needed to be redeemed. The richest also financed pilgrims whowould visit pilgrimage centres for them. The sums for that purpose were in both townsequal, which probably resulted from actual costs and accepted norms. Generally speaking,pious legacies constituted an insignificant part of the merchants’ property, unless thebenefactor had any inheritors. In part of the testaments there are no instructions for piousbequests; however, it does not mean that the burghers did not give part of their propertyad pias causas. The pressure both of the existing norms and the religious conceptions ofthe way that might lead to redemption made it indispensable to make that last contract.
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Embroidery was invented in China more than 3000 years ago. The earliest record on the role of embroidery in the court dress was found in the Chinese classic texts of Western Zhou (1077–730 B.C.). And the oldest fragments of embroidered Chinese export silks were discovered before the Second World War at the foot of Altay Mountains in the Scythian kurhans of Pazyryk (4th century B.C.). Many more well-preserved silk embroideries were excavated in the sand-buried oases of Turfan (in today’s Xinjiang) and found in the rock temples of Dunhuang (in the Thousand Buddas’ Grottoes). These were mostly the Tang Dunasty (618–907) embroideries on the Buddhist or Manichean religious banners, as well as costume or shoe decorations. Around the 6th century A.D. embroidery found its way from China to the Kingdom of Khotan and to other countries lying along the Silk Road, together with silkworm rearing and silk manufacture secret skills. From the Kingdom of Khotan they spread to the Central Asian states and finally to the Roman Orient.
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The growing interest in sustainability in the present day has sparked interest in the concept’s history. Numerous historians over the past two decades have sought to trace the conceptual origins of sustainability and sustainable development. This essay constitutes the first historiographical analysis of this emerging body of literature. The author shows that there are two main branches to the historiography, one focusing on intellectual and cultural origins, and the other focusing on the unsustainability of past, collapsed societies. The essay also offers normative ideas about how the historiography could further develop.
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Archival sources, mostly tenants’ inventories presented in the context of further documents from archives of seigneuries, state and ecclesiastical administration, prove that environmental, economic and societal changes in the dynamic 17th century did not affect mountainous isolated farms in the western part of Eastern Karawanks and in central Kamnik-Savinja Alps in a uniform way. I presented opportunities and pitfalls of this kind of analysis of tenants’ inventories. The method for assessing environmental loading of the 17th century animal husbandry is based on comparison of tenants’ inventories with descriptions of farms. Its fundamental components include the weight of the 17th century livestock and the relationship between feed requirements of different animal species, obtained from seigneurial accounts and visitation proceedings. I analysed cereal production with special emphasis on species diversity, quantities of home-grown grain and cereal stocks. Trade in and lending of cereals took place. Inventoried ploughing implements and damage caused by slope processes prove unsustainable use of some fields. In the case of environmentally or socially caused economic difficulties lenders were in many cases able to provide lacking resources or tolerated arrears, but the scale and characteristics of tenants’ indebtedness differed greatly. On the figure representing the sums of values attributed to livestock, cereals and of active debts from which debts are subtracted, environmental impact of bad harvests in the Late Maunder Minimum can be observed, but further factors, e.g. the extent and quality of agricultural land, non-agricultural sources of income, dowries and shares of inheritance, caused the non-uniform distribution of positive and negative balances of different farms. Population statistics prove that in comparison with the 19th century considerable numbers of inhabitants lived in the area even in the late 17th century.
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Human past of Goli Otok (Barren Island) and its political prison years have been touched on by historians, albeit being largely underrepresented. The rich ecosystems and the biodiversity of Dinaric karst, as well as the geology and geomorphology of Croatian Kvarner Bay region, including Goli Otok as its part, have been explored by geologists, ecologists and biologists. Former political prisons, battlefields, military training grounds and concentration camps, the sites of human incarceration and adverse living conditions worldwide have been studied by historians from many perspectives, including that of environmental history. Between these notions emerges the space to explore the rich and dynamic environmental past of Goli Otok. Despite the physiognomy of the dry, barren, weathered karst to which Goli Otok owes its name, the island’s biodiversity is impressive. Additionally, the prison years, particularly the political prison era, (1949-56) had brought about dramatic environmental changes to the island: it became inhabited by humans who had built the prison complex; it had been partially afforested, quarried in search of marble and bauxite and introduced to domestic animals. Combining various scholarly accounts with the written and oral testimonies of former political prisoners, this article focuses on the animal life on Goli Otok through its environmental transition towards the present, human abandoned but animal inhabited state. The main objective of this article is to contribute to the more complete picture of the prisoners’ everyday experience on Barren Island through exploring which animals, in which order and way came to sight and the mind of these particular people, at this particular time, in this particular place.
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This paper deals with the usurpation of property of Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a view to changes in the area of property ownership. In this regard, the adoption of regulations and the implementation of a number of measures by the authorities, there has been a significant change in property ownership structure of land and other real estate in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A special influence on the change had “agrarane reforms” implemented several times in the period from 1918 to 1990, but also other social and economic processes, such as nationalization, confiscation, expropriation and land consolidation committee. All this has had an impact on the change of property ownership pictures in Bosnia and Herzegovina. These processes particularly impacted Bosniak property, which was significantly reduced, and thus their economic strength and power, but also a living space. All these processes were carried out under the pretext of “reform”, and accompanied by adequate legislation, which allowed them to be the same from a legal and practical point of spend freely.
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Rebuilding the village of Tuzla district demolished during the Second World War took place with many problems. And if governments are putting up ambitious goals, in practice, they could not accomplish. Based on the experience that the renovation in 1945 did not meet, the decision was made by the Ministry of Construction in the People’s Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, ‘’ that the reconstruction in 1946 has performed as a nationwide operation, planned, under the leadership of the National Liberation Front, through technical base , which will be on the field as particularly responsible for it OPERATIONAL authorities to carry out this work ‘’. Therefore, in order to ensure successful work on the reconstruction of settlements, educated Management technical base as an independent department within the Ministry of Construction. It is tasked to ‘’ establish papers ‘’ for the technical basis for the district people’s committees, that same money supplies, tools and materials, to control the work on the reconstruction of settlements in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and to provide the necessary guidelines for the work. But regardless of this, the results are much worse than anticipated or planned. It was the same in 1947 when out of the planned 6,640 houses, built 2,166 or 32.62%. The reasons for this are many: poor organization, unscrupulous work, abuse, poor infrastructure and so on.
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