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Filmed in 1986, the film "Offering" is the spiritual testament of its director Andriej Tarkowski. The represented world (reality, destinies of the heroes) is a symbolic relationship to the mystery of human life whose viewer is deeply moved. We show the means by which the "Offering" can reveal the experience of the sacred.
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All the foregoing studies about Latvian mythology have been based mainly on folklore, particularly on Latvian folk songs or dainas. The aim of this article is to present Latvian rock carvings and folk art as another important source for research in the field of mythology and cosmology in particular. The author in this article analyzes four images containing mythical information. Two of them are rock carvings from Rock Virtaka and Rock Krustu (both located in Western Vidzeme and dating back to the 17th—18th centuries), while the other two are engravings on distaffs from Saldus county in Kurland (1882) and Rokiškis district in Aukštaitija (North-East Lithuania, 1822). Although these pictures have been made with different purposes, in different places and times, they all have the same structure and represent the same mythical ideas. They depict both the horizontal and the vertical world model, the distaff from Saldus being the most impressive example of this combination. The horizontal world model is shown in detail. The centre and the four cordial points have been marked there as well as some other elements. The vertical world model is represented by the World Tree, which has three or nine branches and which grows in the centre of the world, and the sky, which in Latvian mythology is imagined as a golden, silver, amber, or stone hill that covers the world. The sun wheel, which goes across the sky, has been depicted on the Saldus distaff as well. Explanation of all these elements is supported by parallels in folklore and archaeology.
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1.Mirča Eliade uzsver atšķirības starp seno pirmskristietibas domāšanas veidu, ko spilgti raksturo mūžīgās atgriešanās mīts, un kristīgās kultūras pārstāvju uzskatiem par to, ka laikam ir lineāra daba. 2.Normans Kons apgalvo, ka apokaliptiskais mīts ir attīstījies no "kaujas mīta", kas atspoguļoja kosmosa un haosa cīņas arhetipu. Par apokaliptiskās ticības šūpuli pieņemts uzskatīt zoroastrismu. 3.Grieķu un indiešu mitoloģijā, kā arī dažu seno filozofu uzskatos atrodamas norādes uz laicīgās pasaules galu, turpretim, pēc Zoroastra mācības, seno ebreju mesiāniskās tradīcijas un kristīgās eshatoloģijas pamatnostādnēm, pasaule ir nolemta galīgai iznīcībai, pēc kuras radīsies pilnīgi cita realitāte. 4.Daniēla grāmatas apokaliptiskais simbolisms liecina par tolaik izplatītām ebreju vajāšanām, kā arī iepazīstina lasītājus ar specifiskiem "haosa briesmoņiem".
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Der Beitrag stellt den Versuch dar, Hegels Refleksionen über den philosophischen Diskurs zu erörtern. Unsere These besagt, daß Hegels Lehre „spekulativen Satz“ in prägnanter Form und den wesentlichen Momenten die Reflexion (eine Widerspieglung) des Weges seinen eigenen, in der Phänomenologie des Geistes dargelegten Philosophie darstelt. Um die Sache weiter zuzuspitzen: unsere These, die wir zuuntermauern versuchen, läuft nicht nur darauf, daß in Hegels „philosophischem Satz“ das spekulative Wesen der Philosophie aufgezegt wird, sondern vor allem auf den Umstand, daß seine Ausführungen über den spekulative Satz in zusammengefaßter Form die in ihren wichtigsten Momenten dargelegte Philosophie Hegels beinhaltet.
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The present paper is devoted to the contribution of the eminent philosopher and mathematician Bernard Bolzano to the problem of continuum. The paper consists of two parts. In the first part it is compared the conception of Bolzano about the continuum with that of Aristotle. Bolzano’s view includes two essential moments: first, that the continuum is composed of noncontinual elements (points), and second, that two points which are at a certain distance one to other cannot compose a continuum. Aristotle has two definitions about continuity: in the first one he in fact develops the idea of continuity as a physical connectedness, and in the second one he emphasizes the infinite divisibility of the continuum. The second part of the paper gives an evaluation of Bolzano’s contribution to the problem of continuum in comparison with the achievements of the contemporary mathematics on the problem. There is a tendency to consider continuity in two senses: as an infinite divisibility and as a connectedness. The contemporary topology (as a branch of mathematics) develops the concept of continuity in the second sense. Bolzano’s conception bears in some respects the resemblance to the contemporary definitions in topology of the concepts of closeness, neighborhood, isolated point, etc. His definition about the continuum can be considered as a remote precursor of the contemporary topological definition of continuity as connectedness.
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The criticism against the absolute validity of the assertion quantum intendis, tantum facis is an integral component of Aquinas’ doctrine of moral intention. This paper aims to investigate this criticism within the domain of sinful actions according to Aquinas’ division of sins. The quantum-tantum assertion is only valid regarding the mortal sins directly against God, which do not involve any effect of sensual suffering according to their species, whereas these kinds of sins cannot bear any degree of gravity: the loss of the connection with God is radical. Meanwhile, the mortal sins with sensual suffering as effect and the venial sins as the corresponding imperfect form do not follow the assertion and possess varied degrees of gravity: their sinful gravity depends not only on the intentional action, but on the corresponding realization. The fact that, among sins, the validity of the quantum-tantum assertion varies because of the sins’ relation to sensual effect indicates that sinful action, with or without a sensual effect, is involved in the species of sinful acts.
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The current text tries to explore possible connections between will and intellectual process in the context of the work of Peter John Olivi. Olivi presents the will in an innovative light, which provides the basis for later authors such as John Duns Scotus or William of Ockham. Olivi’s claim is that the will is a totally active power, which is the first mover of the soul and its other powers. The self-evidential freedom that the will possesses makes it responsible furthermore for its own self-reflexivity. Olivi goes even further to claim that the reflexivity of the rest of the soul’s powers depends on the self-reflexivity of the will. Based on this, the paper traces different passages, in which Olivi speaks about the free control, which we can observe having in our thoughts – freedom in terms of judgment, discerning, choosing an object for our knowledge, etc. Important for this discussion is Olivi’s understanding of intentionality and more particularly his concept of “aspectus”. The intellectual-volitional acts stand in the context of a broader intentional directedness of the human being towards the outside world. We would like to trace in what way this intentional directedness might be freely controlled from the will, so that different epistemological processes could be enabled to take place.
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This paper aims to be a discussion-opener. It is making a statement that should be examined further about the very plausible connection between the contemporary crisis in aesthetics as a philosophical discipline and the breaking of the philosophical relation between the idea of contingency as a condition for the human autonomous act and the art. This idea is based on the interrelation between the free will and the dignity of the person, as understood within the metaphysics of ens morale, and the value of any creative act.As an introductory demonstration of this interrelation, we propose the short but important elaboration on what is an act of art by Francisco Suárez in his De bonitate et malitia humanorum actuum (sect. 1, n. 17.). There we see that the value of the act of art acquires a double significance – on the one hand, the designation of an object as a work of art depends entirely on the conscious autonomous intention of the artist to create it, and on the other hand – the evaluation of each object of art depends on the knowledge and the will invested uniquely by the author in this particular object as a result of a unique creative act. In order to clarify the context of Suárez’ view, we also explicate the essence of the synchronic contingency, developed earlier by John Duns Scotus.
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Derridina dekonstrukcijska metodologija nije htjela biti ni metodička ni logička , no viđena pobliže, unatoč tomu, hodila je stanovitim svojim putem i prolazila kroz stanovite postaje. Prva je dekonstrukcijska etapa započela sredinom šezdesetih godina 20. stoljeća objavljivanjem knjiga Pisanje i razlika, Glas i fenomen i O gramatologiji. Posrijedi je dekonstrukcija filozofije kao metafizike prisutnosti, odnosno relativizacija svih tradicionalnih pa i modernih filozofskih pojmova, a ishodište je Heideggerovo mišljenje bivstvovanja. Derrida se pritom trsi prikazati da Heidegger bivstvovanje izjednačuje s prisutnošću (prisutnog), zbog čega još uvijek ostaje unutar metafizičkog polja što ga inače kani napustiti. Mišljenje bivstvovanja kao mišljenje prisutnosti, odnosno čiste prezencije, još se uvijek zatiče bivstvovanju u značenju Izvora/Iskona i Temelja. Do izvornog, punog bivstvovanja, prema Heideggeru, trebao bi nas dovesti čisti materinji jezik svojom pra-iskonskom riječju. Jezik je u tome smislu kuća bivstvovanja. [...]
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Purpose of Article is to obtain cultural knowledge about the light and the darkness as keys of transcendence within the scope of “Being in Collapse” by K. Jaspers. Methodology. The methodology of the study includes applying axiological, semiotic, hermeneutic, phenomenological and theological methods. Methodological instruments of cultural studies allow revealing metaphorical, myth and poetic potencies of the light and the darkness in the anthropological discourse of the Orthodoxy in semantic, transcendental parallels with the “Being in Collapse” by K. Jaspers. Scientific Novelty consists in determining the role of the light and the darkness as the sense modeling and seminal elements of the sacral field of asceticism which, appealing to the ideological web of the keys, outline variability in perception and realization of transcendental reality by an individual. Interpretation of symbolism of the light and the darkness in relation to existential “being in the collapse” opens the prospect of expanding and deepening analytical possibilities of cultural studies in philosophical and anthropological discourse. Conclusions. Comparison of the semantic meaning of the light and the darkness with “Being in Collapse” by K. Jaspers allowed to identify the ways of forming a special type of transcendent personality. Study of semantic formants of the light and the darkness in the ontology of transcendence through the lens of realities of ascetic deeds allow us to reveal the features of formation not only of the ascetic consciousness but also of the Christian religious culture as a whole.
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Purpose of the article. To reveal is the theory of language of museum objects is scientific or metaphysics. Methodology. Criticism and falsifiability by K.Popper. Scientific novelty. For the first time, the method of museum objects was under scientific criticism. It was proven that this theory is metaphysics. Bring to the light that the role of communication was exaggerated. Firstly, the museum connected with the third world (by K.Popper). Conclusions. Theory of language of museum objects has ancient roots – fetishism. In spite of this, this theory wasn’t under scientific criticism. The idea of the physical presence of information in museum objects rejected in the process of verification. Theory of language of museum objects «immunizes» with the concept of the museum as the communication system. It seems that museum objects include physical information when they switch on this system. But museum representations are not products of communication. Museum representations describe the third world in the second using the first world (Popper's theory of three worlds).
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Weapons technology is a key factor contributing to cultural evolution because it enables humans actively to protect themselves from a variety of natural threats and expand their access to resources. In contrast to non-military technologies, the purpose of which is to subordinate and shape inanimate, non-intentional or trivial, regular states, weapons primarily serve to assert one’s own will against self-determined, intentional and non-trivially acting organisms. This functional idiosyncrasy establishes the basis for a continuous arms race, which begins with the need to anticipate phenotypical and mental abilities of animals and other humans through weapons technology before leading to the anticipation of attack and defence capacities of groups and, ultimately, the anticipation of accumulated intelligence and productive accomplishments of entire political states. The dynamics of development in weapons technology prove that weapons are simultaneously an index and a motor of cultural and cognitive evolution. Weapons reflect the organizational and technical capabilities of cultures, indicating special cognitive capacities bound up with the abstract anticipation of enemies as well as the ability to produce mental models of complex adversarial entities. At the same time, weapons relay intercultural and internal selection pressures by playing a decisive role in the processes of general technological and organizational innovation. This innovation also influences the formation of practices, norms, motives and self-images. As such, weapons technology concretizes an integral principle governing cultural evolution and civilizational history.
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The purpose of the article is the analysis of varieties of moral evil and projects of their implementation in the history of culture, as well as the phenomenon of lies as a manifestation of moral evil, the analysis of ways of mankind exit on the path of purely personal responsibility, which leads to the development and improvement of personality. The research methodology is based on the application of general scientific and special methods of cognition, in particular: analysis, synthesis, the logical method and the method of generalizations. Scientific novelty consists in proposing methodological approaches, summarizing the fundamental positions in understanding the phenomenon of lies (metaphysical and instrumental concept) when analyzing the history of philosophical and cultural interpretations of this phenomenon. Conclusions. In response to the conditions of the surrounding world, people create the basis for understanding reality, which is reflected in the memory of a common culture. For centuries, the paradigm of "moral protection" of oneself from the world, the government, competitors, etc. have been created. through the mechanisms of lies, deception, lies, which was based on the phenomenon of fear. The aggression inherited from distant ancestors is one of the necessary qualities of all living things, but the task of culture is to reorient aggressive impulses to a socially useful course.
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In this article, the author reviews the expressed thoughts of Z. Bau¬man in the context of Christian motifs present in the texts of left-wing intellectuals. In this analysis of selected motifs of Bauman's work, the author first makes a short introduction, presenting the philosopher. Next, he shows Bauman's hermeneutics of Christianity. Finally, the author presents an assessment of Bauman's views in the form of apologia. Left-leaning intellectuals are critical of Christianity in their theses. Bauman, an agnostic, evaluates Christianity with a cool eye. He is concerned about evangelical radicalism and attachment to the truth. Therefore, he postulates that believers should open themselves to the world and give up their own confessional identity and start building a broad human coalition.
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The study seeks to clarify solitude as a more original phenomenon than the sociality derived from it and advocates solitude as the most ontological trait of hypostazing the subject. The author draws on the analyses of the solitude of Emmanuel Levinas who understands solitude as the basic category in the architecture of being. In this case Levinas fundamentally contradicts Heidegger, for whom solitude is merely a deficient mode of being with others and is derived rather by a more originally co-existence than by its negation. These are analyses that the author considers as unsurpassed but also neglected or overlooked. Existence is rooted in itself. It is the self-relationship of the existing to the event of his existence, it is an irreversible unity between the existing and its existence. This is the most original union. It is solitude more original than loneliness.
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Nodarbojoties ar filozofiju, mēs pētām paši savu temperamentu un vienlaikus cenšamies atklāt patiesību. Man šķiet, ka mūsdienu morāles filozofijā ir kāda neaizpildīta niša. Vairākas garīgās dzīves jomas, kas saistītas ar filozofiju, vai nu vēršas plašumā (psiholoģija, politiskās un sociālās teorijas), vai brūk kopā (reliģija), bet filozofija nespēj tām tikt līdzi – vai nu sniedzot atbalstu (pirmajā gadījumā), vai otrajā – palīdzot saglabāt atbilstošās vērtības. Nepieciešams izveidot darbotiesspējīgu filozofisko psiholoģiju, kura varētu vismaz mēģināt savienot moderno psiholoģijas terminoloģiju ar vērtību jēdzieniem.
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In the present article the nocturnal landscapes of some of the short stories from the Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka and Viy from the Mirgorod cycle, are reconsidered, thus analysis is focused on the depiction of the Evil and the author’s attitude to the metaphysical background of this problem. The scrutiny is prompted by a few groups of questions: 1. what sort of poetic principles regulate the depictions of Ukrainian landscapes and the relationship between man and the ’scenery including him’ in N. V. Gogol’s early works? 2. how do a great variety of elements taken from different traditions cross each other at one point, such as the Bucolic (pastoral) poetry, clichés of Romanticism, folkloric archetypes and the author’s own, independent artistic means? 3. what is hidden behind the apparent Dualism of the Good and the Evil in Gogol’s early works? how do elements of Romanticist Weltanschauung and the traits of Evangelic (paskhal’naya) Aesthetics co-exist? With these questions traced down, the function of the multifoldness of the Gogolian prose can get verified alongside with identifying a close relationship between text and subtext. According to the approach of the author of the present article, the research into the ‘literary appearance’ of Gogol’s early works may reveal the various stages in the development of the writer’s artistic idea.
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Whether we see in philosophy the Heideggerian-existentialist attempt to establish a difference between Being and being, or in the spirit of the philosophy of existence of the Jasper’s illumination of man’s existence in its bond to transcendence, the Husserlian endeavor of a phenomenological return to the very essence of things, or in the Deleuzean insight into the construction of concepts, we find all these elements within what we denote by Islamic philosophy. Within the long and rich history of Muslim philosophical thought, Andalusian philosophy represents the pinnacle of classical Islamic philosophy, whose best intellectual offshoots will be embodied in the works of Ibn Bajja, Ibn Tufayl, Ibn Rushd, Ibn ‘Arabi, Moses Maimonides, and numerous other thinkers. The paper that follows aims to explain the phenomenon of ‘Andalusian philosophy’, taking into account the results of recent research published in scientific studies in the West.
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The contribution is discussed of the Lvov-Warsaw School (LWS) in determining the axiological dimension of science. By promoting philosophical culture and solid axiological foundations, the School members aspired to imbue the spirit of patriotism and a sense of national community in society. They believed that if science is to serve humanity, it should not develop in an infinite and recalcitrant way. Apart from defining substantive and methodological directives, the LWS scholars regarded it important to draw up axiological frameworks of scientific studies to define their proper tasks and protect them against depreciating factors. Science, in their view, should promote and develop values. As they saw it, science based on clearly defined axiological foundations should not only seek to improve man’s living, but also develop his inner life. Hence, the scholar’s mission should adhere to set values, in particular truth and freedom, imbuing scientific work with the status of crucial and at the same time autonomous field of human activity.
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The author reviews the Hegelian construction of sense knowledge: the empirical content of the object and its general character. He argues that Hegel’s standpoint has to be to some extent compatible with the basic thesis of epistemological realism on the sense consciousness level. Yet at the same time Hegel’s concept of experience denotes a conceptual character of perceptual contents. This is possible thanks to a gradual process of recognizing the non-empirical elements of consciousness, as well as to the pattern in which the reality of the experience is feasible only within the ideal reality of Geist thinking. However, in the process of experience such an understanding of the Hegelian standpoint requires distinguishing improper reality (I line) from proper reality (II line). The interpretation proposed in this article appears to be well tuned with Hegel’s conception of a synthesis combining respective types and levels of knowledge, including sense knowledge.
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