Un monument feudal dobrogean necunoscut - biserica Sf. Atanasie de la Niculițel

Author(s): Cristian Moisescu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 3/1976

A l'occasion des récentes recherches effectuées sur les monuments d'architecture de la zone du nord de la Dobroudja, on a découvert dans le village de Niculiţel, un ancien édifice de culte, actuellement l'église St. Athanase (fig. 1). La plus ancienne partie de l'église, comprenant le pronaos, le naos et l'autel, est surmontée d'une tour, soutenue vers le sud et le nord par deux arches latérales en plein cintre, vers l'ouest par une voâte semicylindrique, disposée en long, et vers l'est par une voûte étroite, toujours cylindrique (fig. 2). Le pronaos de l'église — en forme actuel adossé à la construction initiale — de forme presque carrée, est recouvert d'une voûte longitudinale (fig. 3). La dernière étape de construction est constituée par l'exonarthex surmonté d'une tour, ajouté à l'ancien édifice en 1880. Les éléments dont nous disposons à l'état actuel des recherches nous permettent de situer le monument dont il s'agit dans une époque dont les limites ne dépassent pas la fin du XII-ème siècle et le début du siècle suivant. En tenant compte de son type et de ses dimensions, nous considérons que cette église a appartenu soit a une résidence féodale, soit à une collectivité civile.

CORIOLAN PETRANU – REFERENT AL COMISIEI MONUMENTELOR ISTORICE ȘI EXPERTIZELE SALE ARTISTICE DIN ROMÂNIA INTERBELICĂ. SCRISORI RISIPITE

Author(s): Nicolae Sabău / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 1/2018

Coriolan Petranu – Referee of the Historical Monuments Commission and His Expert Art Reports Written in Romania during the Interwar Period. Scattered Letters. The present study is a welcome and useful completion of the chapter published by the author in the volume entitled Istoria Artei la Universitatea din Cluj [Art History at the University in Cluj] (Nicolae Sabău, Corina Simion, Vlad Țoca. Coordinator Nicolae Sabău). The article focuses on previously unpublished letters on the topic. The teaching activity of Professor Coriolan Petranu, founder of the Art History Department at the University in Cluj, was beneficially completed after 1920 by his contributions in the field of historical monuments protection in Inter-War Romania and his expert reports in the field of fine arts and of the restructuring of the museums in Transylvania according to the modern principles of European museums. Among his numerous expert reports, the documents/letters under analysis record his observations, actual art historical studies, on projects related to town planning, architecture, public monuments, street furniture and technical works, urban systematization plans etc. (the building sites, liturgical furniture and wall paintings of the Orthodox church in Târgu Mureș and of the Orthodox cathedral in Cluj, the fresco of the festive hall of the Academic College in Cluj painted by master Costin Petrescu, 1938-39), the analysis of certain folk art objects from museums and collections in Transylvania, public and institutional monuments (Avram Iancu’s statue in Cluj, the Union Monument in Arad, Pârvan’s bust from the University in Cluj etc.), expert reports on Romanian vernacular monuments, wooden churches (Poiana, Tălgi, Honțișor, Bocșa Română, Roșiori etc.) and masonry churches (Criscior), his correspondence with artists of the Inter-War Period and the exhibitions he organized (Catul Bogdan, Emil Cornea, Atanase Damian, Aurel Ciupe, Aurel Papp etc., the exhibition Collegium Artisticum Transylvanicorum, Cluj, 1921), his expert reports on works of painting, sculpture, graphic arts and European bookmaking. The correspondence of the art historian from Cluj with intellectuals, professors, art historians, museum directors and library directors of upper and general education institutions from Great Romania, from Bessarabia and Bucovina, was impressive (Petre Constantinescu, Oreste Tafrali, Vasile Ciurea, Al. P. Arbore). He also made generous donations of books and photographic materials to these institutions.

ВІЗУАЛІЗАЦІЯ ПОЛІТИЧНИХ ВІДНОСИН ЗАСОБАМИ АРХІТЕКТУРИ

Author(s): Ievhen Viktorovych Pereguda,Nadiia Anatoliivna Herbut / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: 2/2019

Problem setting. The architecture has the powerful potential of impact on political consciousness of citizens. This role is reinforced due to the development of high technologies, growing data streams, etc. The policy of national memory in Ukraine is the testimony of this phenomenon.Recent research and publications analysis. The researches, devoted to the relations between the architecture and politics, including the problem of human rights, are spread recently. The studying of architecture impact on formation of symbolic policy, are spread within Urban Studies. O. Hatherley, S. Low et al. study the impact of city squares on political communications. The significant contribution into study on impact of architecture on social relations was made by neuropsychologist C. Ellard. Some researchers have analyzed the political the political aspects of the government institutions architecture. N. Khoma develops the theoretical principles for political Urban Studies in Ukraine. However, there are the contradictions in national researches; they often pay attention only to reflection of tendencies for political development in architecture.Paper objective. The paper objective is to analyze the mutual impact of architecture and social political relations, in particular, architecture ability not only to reflect the tendencies in social political development but to impact on them.Paper main body. A symbol not only represents the social actuality, it is such actuality and it forms it within dynamic aspect. This stipulates not only the propagandist but social organizing functions of architecture. Hereby, the architectural objects produce the senses, which their creators have not anticipated. Moreover, they can change the symbolic load with time. The mechanism to form the actuality through symbolization is the embodiment of new sense into symbolic object by its consumer, and the discrepancies in perception relate to different social positioning of consumers. The theoretical substantiation of these phenomena is the concept by M. McLuhan, in particular, his principle according to which the medium is the message the medium is amputated from its creator. As a result of this, the architecture can refer to other actuality, namely to society with its range of persuasions, emotions, etc.The history of president’s residencies in Turkey is analyzed in the paper as the example for impact of form on development of political relations. Moving of the President to the new residence was preceded to constitutional implementation of president’s government. Place de la Concorde and Vendome Column in Paris were chosen as the example for change in information content of architectural objects. The authors explain the discrepancies in shapes for T. Shevchenko monuments in Ukraine with discrepancies in concepts of nation, which are defended by different regional communities in Ukraine.Conclusions of the research. The authors refer the perspectives for researches on role of architecture in formation of political relations to accumulation of actual material both as to symbolization of certain architectural elements and mechanisms to form the senses of architectural spaces.

Windows

Author(s): Ben Stolk / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2020

Illustrations in this article: Hold your breath; We are watching, they don’t see; Look from the inside; What’s a door doing in the command bridge?; What are they doing there; Are these the Middle Ages?; Do we see; There’s something happening outside; We’ve landed in strange water; Keep the door closed; The windows blind; Shelves to fill in a submarine.

Revisiting the Tomis Amphitheatre – Theories and Hypothesis

Author(s): Marius‐Cristian Streinu / Language(s): English Issue: 48-49/2015

Les hypothèses entourant l’existence d’un amphithéâtre à Tomis nʹont cessé de différer. Celle communément acceptée défend la tenue des combats de gladiateurs dans un théâtre ou un stade modifié afin de les accueillir. Les réserves exprimées autour de l’existence d’un édifice spécifique, romain par excellence, dans une ville grecque ont perduré même après la découverte dans les années 1980 d’un bâtiment présentant certaines caractéristiques propres à un amphithéâtre. Le présent article se propose dès lors dʹaborder à nouveau cette question en passant en revue les différentes catégories de bâtiments concernés avant de cerner le rôle joué par l’amphithéâtre de Tomis dans l’histoire des provinces de la mer Noire.

Sačuvani nadgrobni spomenici nekih Senjana i osoba značajnih za povijest Senja - u Senju i drugdje

Author(s): Zorislav Horvat / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 1/2002

The gravestones were one of the most frequent Middle Ages artefacts, so that neither Senj was the exception in that respect. The gravestones were erected in parochial or monastic churches, while the noble Senians, the princes Krčki Frankopani. Uskoks and ordinary citizens were buried under such gravestones in the Franciscan churches (the older one outside the town walls, the newer one "intra muros"), in the Dominican church of St. Nicholas, in the Cathedral and elsewhere. Due to various disasters, specially German bombing in 1943. then because of various reconstructions and also because of the lack oi' understanding the importance of such gravestones, a great number of them was destroyed. The author here describes in details the gravestones from Senj and gravestones of Senians or other people important for Senj, which were buried outside Senj (period of Middle Ages from the 14th/I5th c. to mid 16th c). In the part of his essay which elaborate the gravestones from Senj the author deals with the gravestones of the Senian patrician Sipurisa, the bishop Ivan de Caidinaiibus, Ižota d'Este - wife of Stjepan Frankopan. Dominik Betričić and the fragment of one gravestone, which is now preserved in the City's Museum. Likewise, in the part elaborating the gravestones of Senians or the people important for Senj and were buried outside Senj, the author deals with the following names: Martin Mojsijević, Luka Sartoč-Krajač, Petar Kružić, Erazmo Schairer and Ivan Lenković.

„Wędrowiec-dantofil” w rodzinnej Italii. Stanisław Vincenz a włoska tradycja artystyczna

Author(s): Jakub Żmidziński / Language(s): Polish Issue: 38/2020

The article is the first attempt at a holistic view of Stanisław Vincenz’s relationship with Italian culture. Since his youth, Vincenz would visit the Italian Peninsula travelling to Venice and, already as an emigrant after World War II, made a few visits to Naples and Tuscany. These journeys resulted in numerous comments included in his essays on Dante Alighieri, as separate overview Z perspektywy podróży (From a traveller’s perspective) and List z Neapolu. Dialog z Czesławem Miłoszem (A letter from Naples. A dialogue with Czesław Miłosz). Italian journeys, interest in Dante and Italian culture (architecture, painting, folk rituals) brought numerous Italian motifs in the tetralogy Na wysokiej połoninie (On a high mountain pasture). The key element is included in volume II, Zwada (Conflict), which describes a group of loggers cutting down trees in a primeval Carpathian forest. In this part, a young Italian dies and is buried after a Hutsul funeral ritual which is not understood by the foreigners. The analysis of the abovementioned motifs shows how important Italian culture was to Vincenz, also in a very personal sense, given the Vincenz family’s distant Venetian roots. One may even claim that for the writer, Italy was almost a family land. Personifying the European spirit, Italy was his “broader” homeland.

Kilka myśli o mieście, historii, pamięci i narodzie

Author(s): Aleksander Łupienko / Language(s): Polish Issue: 81/2020

Średniowieczne zabytki w nowoczesnym kraju. Z dziejów dziewiętnastowiecznego polskiego dyskursu o architekturze

Author(s): Aleksander Łupienko / Language(s): Polish Issue: 81/2020

The work discusses the image of the medieval archi- tectural heritage in the Polish public discourse of the nineteenth century. The author uses a corpus of texts published in academic journals and books to ana- lyze the attitudes towards historical buildings in a period marked by intense development of the national cause and Romanticism, and later by the grow- ing competition between the empires of Central Europe in the field of culture. The analysis shows growing esteem for the Gothic style, which was seen as having great potential for the future of architecture, as the well as general pessimistic attitude towards culture prevalent in the 1880s.

TURIZAM U SPLITU KRAJEM 19. I POČETKOM 20. STOLJEĆA

Author(s): Jasenka Kranjčević / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 46/2020

The development of technology, favourable climate, attractive coastline, rich cultural heritage and other factors encouraged the development of tourism on both the eastern Adriatic coast and in Split in the mid-nineteenth century. Certainly, the main precondition for the development of tourism was the establishment of a permanent maritime and railway line as well as other technical infrastructure. In the previous research into Split, those related to a comprehensive view of the development of tourism and the tourist offer in the City at the turn of the 20th century were omitted. The paper is based on research of Croatian, German, Italian and English resources, i.e. magazines, books, tourist guides and advertisements of individual destinations or catering facilities. In the late 19th century, Split became one of the main tourist destinations on the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and thus one of the most described tourist destinations in guides, travelogues and advertisements. Since Split was not declared a health resort, a large number of visits to Split and its surroundings were related to business and only a smaller part to vacations or medical travels. It is evident from various data, such as magazines and books, that the tourist traffic in Split grew unstoppably from the last decade of the 19th century until the Great War. The port of Split, the attractive area and the tourist offer contributed to this. It is interesting that higher tourist traffic was registered in Split than in Dubrovnik before the Great War. Foreigners or tourists came to Split from all over the world, and most of them came from the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The majority of tourists would arrive by sea. The tourist offer in Split did not exclusively include accommodation, restaurants or bathing areas, but was also related to both cultural (tour of architectural heritage, theatre, etc.) and natural attractions (Marjan, Mosor). Despite the great tourist potential, Split was burdened with numerous problems, such as insufficient understanding of the essence of tourism, education of the workforce, business ownership, poor promotion et al.

SPLITSKI GRADONAČELNIK MIHOVIL KARGOTIĆ

Author(s): Stanko Piplović / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 46/2020

Following the Great War, ten mayors were appointed in Split, the city in the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, then in the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and, finally, in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The first mayor was Ivo Tartaglia, and the last one was Josip Brkić. Mihovil Kargotić was in office in the period 1933-1938. Kargotić was born on June 11, 1891 in Imotski. His father, Lujo, was a public notary at the time. After a few years, the family, that originated in Vis, moved to Split, where Mihovil finished high school and then decided to study at technical colleges in Vienna, Brno and Prague. Just before the beginning of the First World War, he graduated in technical sciences. To avoid serving in the Austrian army, he moved to Switzerland where he spent four years in Zurich attending the technical high school there. After the war had ended, he passed the engineering exams in Paris. Since then, he had been in the permanent professional and administrative service in Split. Data on his professional work are very scarce. In the very beginning of his career, together with engineers Lovro Krstulović and Vjekoslav Ivanišević, he ran a construction company. According to some scanty information, he participated in the construction of a three-floor residential and commercial building on the north side of the central farmer market – Pazar – in Split. The family house in Firule, in Split, where he lived, may have been his creation. Even after he was elected mayor in 1933, he was active professionally for some time. He was a member of the Split branch of the Association of Yugoslav Engineers and Architects. Kargotić was the mayor of Split until May 19, 1938. Then, Mirko Buić was elected. His tenure took place in very complex economic and political circumstances around the world. The state was under the dictatorship rule that was formally abolished in 1931. However, only the regime national party was allowed to operate. After the assassination of King Alexander in 1934, they were allowed to work, so new elections were called the following year. Thus, the dictatorship really ended and the so-called compromise government was established. During all that time, Split was part of the Littoral Banovina with Josip Jablanović as its governor - ban. The situation was chaotic. When Kargotić took office, Split had almost 40,000 inhabitants. He regularly attended and chaired city council sessions. He participated in discussions and informed members on specific issues. He was, at the same time, the director of the municipal electric companies authority. His daily responsibilities were numerous and varied. He participated in events during frequent visits to foreign warships, French, English, Romanian and Turkish. He attended receptions and meetings with state and foreign dignitaries. Since Kargotić was a prominent construction expert, he was actively involved in urban planning. He was a member of both the Chamber of Engineers and the Society of Engineers. He was a member of the tender committee appointed to select the best solution for the construction of the Orthodox church in 1935. He participated in resolving the issue of the construction of the Banovina building, which was the subject of fierce controversy in public. While Kargotić was in office, several important public buildings were built in addition to the private ones. Investors were different. The main one was the state which, over a number of years, invested in several construction projects: the infectious disease ward of the new hospital in Firule (1933), the employment office building in Zrinjsko-frankopanska street (1935), public and customs warehouses in the port and the post office building in Pistura (1938). In order to accelerate the construction process and secure funds, Kargotić went to Belgrade on several occasions to negotiate with ministers. At the time, the Governor’s Palace on the West Coast was under construction as well as other significant projects, such as the expansion of the Dominican monastery in the central farmer market, the construction of both an Orthodox church and a new church of Our Lady of Health in Dobri. In 1938, an unexpected turnaround occurred. On May 18, Kargotić handed in his notice. The true reasons were never revealed to the public. All Kargotić stated was that the amount of time he had worked for the city was quite enough. On May 19, at his own initiative, the City Council held a meeting, which was also attended by Vice President Duje Ivanišević. Kargotić informed them that he had resigned. He thanked them for their joint action and recommended that they appointed the new president. However, the councilors showed solidarity: they all resigned, except Peter Luger. The next day, Duje Ivanišević submitted his resignation to the governor. The participants of the meeting did not give any explanations about the reasons to the journalists. The reasons may have been very serious. Councilors Andrija Zelić from Solin, Luka Draganja and Ante Plosnić from Stobreč also resigned. The Governor - Ban accepted the resignation. The news provoked lively comments in the city, especially about the reasons. Prospective candidates for their positions were also discussed. Information about Kargotić, after he resigned as mayor, is scarce. He was a member of the tender committee for the construction of the courthouse in 1939. 28 tenders were submitted. The results were poor. The construction of the new building did not take place then. Mihovil Kargotić survived the Second World War. He died in Split on April 7, 1987. He was buried in Vis on April 9 in the Prirovo cemetery.

Jana Fuchs: Städtebau und Legitimation.

Author(s): Andrew Demshuk / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2021

Book-Review: Jana Fuchs, Städtebau und Legitimation. Debatten um das unbebaute historische Warschauer Zentrum, 1945–1989. (Europas Osten im 20. Jahrhundert, Bd. 9.) De Gruyter. Berlin 2020. XII, 393 S., Ill. ISBN 978-3-11-064082-3. (€49,95.) ‒ Andrew Demshuk

Kõikudes lammutamise ja mälestise vahel: kolhoosikeskuste arhitektuuri sotsiaalne pärand

Author(s): Raili Nugin,Tarmo Pikner / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 03+04/2021

This article concentrates on the role of social and spatial processes that influence how architectural sites of the past are deemed part of cultural heritage. It focuses on the contested architecture of collective farms (kolkhozes) in post-Soviet Estonia. By analysing power relations, spatial ordering and ways of relating to the past, it demonstrates the complex negotiations that are involved in heritagisation processes. These complicated processes are illustrated by analysing three case studies: the Lümanda House in Saaremaa, the Piilupesa kindergarten in Viimsi (Haabneeme) and the Laekvere community centre in Lääne-Virumaa.

Sõjaväesisene kunst – pärimus ja pärand

Author(s): Hilkka Hiiop,Robert Treufeldt / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 03+04/2021

The article focuses on an overview of the known artworks produced within the Soviet armed forces in the territory of Estonia. A classification of the works is provided and the needs, possibilities and ways to protect that kind of heritage in present-day Estonia is discussed.

Development of Soviet Lithuania’s Urban Conservation System in the Baltic Context

Author(s): Viltė Janušauskaitė / Language(s): English Issue: 03+04/2021

Systematic urban heritage conservation in Soviet Lithuania began in 1956, when the Vilnius Old Town reconstruction project was launched. Similar issues were being dealt with in the Soviet Estonian and Latvian Republics as well. By the mid1970s urban conservation systems in Lithuania and Estonia had developed, while in Latvia a complex, functioning system was never established. While most of the previous studies were limited to one particular country, this article analyses the development of an urban heritage protection system in Soviet Lithuania in the contexts of other Baltic countries by comparing urban conservation processes, influences and revealing similarities and differences. Comparative analysis is particularly relevant, considering the long-term testimonials regarding Lithuania’s and Estonia’s heritage protection systems’ exceptionality and level of advancement, as well as their correspondence with relevant international trends.

Construction of Orthodox Churches in Estonia: Formation of Style (1840s–1860s)

Author(s): Alexander Bertasch / Language(s): English Issue: 03+04/2021

The article examines the construction of Orthodox churches in Estonia in the 1840s–1860s, focusing on the peculiarities and significance of that process as a specific historical and cultural phenomenon. These monuments, little studied before, occupy a prominent place in the country’s cultural heritage, especially in rural areas. The critical contexts of this phenomenon are 1) historical, i.e. the necessity of building churches for the Estonian peasants who converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy in the 1840s, and 2) cultural, i.e. the designing and constructing of Orthodox churches stimulated the development of professional architecture in Estonia. A significant number of churches have been attributed and the biographies of Baltic architects of this period have been studied for the first time.

Juhtumiuuringud vahepealsuse ajajärgust

Author(s): Triin Ojari / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 03+04/2021

Ingrid Ruudi. Spaces of the Interregnum. Transformations in Estonian Architecture and Art 1986–1994. Dissertationes Academiae Artium Estoniae 31. Tallinn: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia, 2020, 292 lk. (Triin Ojari)

Ambony protestanckie w gotyckich kościołach w Osiekach i Suchej Koszalińskiej

Author(s): Henryk Romanik / Language(s): Polish Issue: 9/2021

Pomeranian churches combine elements of the medieval Gothic tradition and furnishings from the Lutheran Reformation era. Such examples can be found in two temples, the history of which dates back to the times of the mission of religious orders in the Koszalin region. The original relics of the original furnishings are very rare, but relatively many elements of Protestant sacred art have been preserved. Two pulpits located on the new tourist route between Darlowo (Darłowo) and Sianow (Sianów) attract particular attention. The pulpit in Osieki belongs to the family of late-Renaissance pulpits (c. 1660) with an architectural structure with figural and sometimes painted decorations. An interesting fact here is the inscriptions of the chronostychonic co¬nvention, which encode chronological information in the writing of letters as Roman numerals. Unfortunately, during the last conservation works, the information from the parish chronicle published before World War II was not used. Documented biblical sentences originally placed under the parapet and in the panels under the statues of the apostles have not been recreated. The rococo pulpit (1729) in Sucha Koszalinska (Sucha Koszalińska) is even more rooted in the scriptural tradition. Here, the decoration of the canopy and the pulpit’s basket are a dozen medallions with biblical quotations, which fully express the ideological program rooted in the prophetic and apostolic books. The only figure is the image of Christ the Savior of the World, and on the top of the canopy we have the image of the Holy Spirit’s dove. Both pulpits deserve the attention of art and liturgical historians, and after the necessary conservation works, they can become a tourist attraction of the coastal microregion.

カタストロフィの空間 ― ポスト・ソ連映画の地下鉄表象 ―

Author(s): Akiko Honda / Language(s): Japanese Issue: 68/2021

「まるでおとぎ話みたい！」——子ども向け映画『アリヨーシャ•プチツィンの精神的成長 (Алёша Птицын вырабатывает характер)（1953年）では、モスクワ地下鉄の環状線《コ ムソモーリスカヤ》駅【図1】を初めて見た少女が、その巨大で壮麗な空間を前に思わず感嘆の声をあげる【図2】。このような地下鉄駅の描写や演出の背後で働いていたメカニズム、すなわちモスクワの地下鉄駅はおとぎ話の中の宮殿のように設計•建設されねばならないという言説を、現代ロシアの思想家ミハイル•ルィクリンは「地下鉄言説(метродискурс)」⑵と名付けている。1935年に最初の区間が開通すると同時に、地下鉄言説はさまざまなメディアを通じて広められ、そしてそれを反復•強化するかのように、これ以降に建設された地下鉄駅のデザインはますます宮殿に近づいていった。地下鉄開発はスターリンの首都再開発総計画、通称ゲンプラン（генплан)の一部に組み込まれていたが、これらの地下鉄駅のイメージは新生モスクワの卓越性G)を証しするものとして機能した。

Трудности советской урбанизации и создания «социалистического города» на мультикультурной периферии: Казань 20-х годов XX века

Author(s): Thomas M. Bohn,Svetlana Yu. Malysheva,Alla Arkadevna Salnikova / Language(s): Russian Issue: 3/2021

Based on the example of Kazan in the 1920s, the difficulties and problems of implementing the Soviet policy of urbanization and “socialist city” construction in cities with a nationally and religiously heterogeneous population are shown. This policy and the related processes of rural-urban migration, “indigenization”, “apartment redistribution”, and development of the urban outskirts at the expense of the former “bourgeois” center destroyed, deliberately and purposefully, the urban culture that had previously prevailed here and changed the social and national composition of the urban population. Therefore, they can be regarded as the tools of “positive discrimination”. The “positive discrimination” of the formerly dominant urban Russian culture in favor of the developing Tatar culture, mostly in its rural variant, manifested itself very clearly in education, namely in the content and design of the Soviet Tatar alphabet (alifba). However, the practice of granting preferences to the previously discriminated strata turned out to be short-term, tooled for the tasks of immediate strengthening of the social base of the Soviet power, and designed to destroy the former society and culture. These practices of dealing with multiculturalism became less popular by the late 1920s–early 1930s, as the Bolshevik power stabilized and “state-oriented” and unifying tendencies in the power policy increased.