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The content of this work consists of the ceramics of İznik and Kütahya which were found in excavation carried out in Edirne Yeni Saray in 2013-2014. This palace began to be built at the end of the first half of 15th century and thereafter it was continuously used by Ottoman sultans. The palace, which started to lose its significance in classical period from 18th century, entered into the process of demolition by means of Ottoman-Russia war. Besides the architectural features of the palace with the excavation works made in different years in Republic Period, the things used in the palace are also endeavoured to be unearthed. The ceramics of İznik and Kütahya from these materials have a crucial position alongside of imported ceramics which were used in the palace. Even though the adornment techniques are the same, these ceramics of which colours and motifs show difference have the characteristics of a document in terms of reflection of pleasure approach of a period of Ottoman. While the blue-white ceramics show the adornment approach of end of 15th century and first half of 16th century, multi-coloured ones reflect the adornment approach of Ottoman entirely in solid-coloured and multi-coloured İznik ceramics. It is possible to see single and multi-coloured dyed style of Kütahya in cups which are most notably form and a couple of part of bowl in Kütahya ceramics. While Chinese influence is observed in some of these samples that are dated as 18th century, some of them shows us the style of ceramists from Kütahya entirely. In this work, it is aimed to determine the position of ceramics of İznik and Kütahya which were found in 2013-2014 within Ottoman ceramics.
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History of NIRD URBAN-INCERC: research in civil engineering, architecture and spatial planning.
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I took part in the archaeological excavations preceding the construction of road no. 405 between March 1 and June 26, 1994. The stretch between 0 km and 3 km where I was the director of the excavation started at the Dabas exit of highway M5 (marked by a triangle in Fig. 1), and lay within to the administrative borders of Újhartyán village. The archaeologists of Pest county had already carried out field walking in the track and in its environment. It indicated a single site on my territory: site no. 42.1 About two thirds of the territory was covered with planted pine and acacia forests, while the stretch between 2000 m and 3000 m was a wheat field on a soil composed partly of wind-blown sand and partly by a more compact humic soil. The area was segmented by N-S directed, 1–2 m high elevations. It could already be observed before the excavations that a few of the depressions between the elevations were former water courses or the remains of a waterlogged territory.
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A small mortuary chapel built of mud bricks was exposed in 2008 by the Hungarian Archaeological Mission in Thebes, on the south slope of the el-Khokha hillock. Paintings in a rather good state of preservation as well as several further fragments came to light during the excavation. They represent some characteristic thematic groups typical of 18th Dynasty rock cut mortuary monuments. Especially two groups offer a good chance for the reconstruction and the examination of basic principles of the decoration program, namely, a series of offering bearers and the scenes of beer brewers. On the basis of the reconstruction of painted elements, further conclusions can also be drawn regarding the architectural features of the chapel.
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The reform process of the Order of the Most Holy Trinity (Trinitarians) developed under the strong influence of the Teresian Carmel, which is reflected in the dependence of the first constitutions of the Discalced Trinitarians (1614) on the statutes of the Spanish Congregation of the Discalced Carmelites (1604). The article discusses the regulations on the artistic activity contained in the aforementioned texts and in the later statutes of both orders (including the unpublished constitutions of the Outside-Spain-Family of the Discalced Trinitarians compiled in 1770) that have as yet not been studied by historians of the Trinitarians Order. The analysis of these provisions leads to the conclusion that Trinitarian approach to art was determined by the legislations of the Spanish Discalced Carmelites and by the third point of the Trinitarian Rule, ordering that their churches were of simple construction. Unlike the Spanish Discalced Carmelites, the Discalced Trinitarians systematically modified their regulations, adapting them to the changing circumstances in which the religious buildings were constructed.
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The Virgin Mary nunnery in Veszprémvölgy was one of the earliest founded convents in Hungary. It was established by (Saint) Stephen I (1000 – 1038). Veszprémvölgy (vallis Wespremiensis), after which the convent got its name, was the medieval name of the valley of the Séd stream flowing west of the town of Veszprém. At present it flows through the inner city of Veszprém. The foundation deed of the convent is an oft’ cited and debated source in Hungarian historiography since it shed light on a period, the age of the foundation of the Hungarian state, a time from which very few written documents have been preserved. Archaeological excavations were conducted in the territory of the convent by Gyula Rhé in the 1930’s yielding only a few evaluable results. The unearthed walls were reconstructed according to contemporary standards of monument protection. Since then, they deteriorated so badly that conservation became necessary. At the same time, the reconstruction of the baroque church, built in the area of the convent in the second half of the 18th century, also had to be tackled.
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On the medieval walls built in the 19th century church of Unirea (Felvinc) a significant Passion-cycle has been found. The frescoes found on the eastern and the southern walls of the sanctuary - in the area of the gallery supporting the organ - have been conserved between 2002 and 2007. The work will continue in the area beneath the gallery. The upper row of the south wall includes two fragmentary scenes before the Crucifixion: the Flagellation and the Trial of Christ. The Passion-cycle continues in the apex of the eastern wall with a large Crucifixion scene. The 19th century vault of the chancel covers the upper part of the scene. The two scenes of the second row - on either side of a window with the iconic representation of Kosmas and Damian - are the Deposition and the Entombment of Christ. The Resurrection and Anastasis of Christ are represented in the lower row, partly covered by the gallery. The scenes of the post-Resurrection incidents continue on the south wall with the Assumption. An apostle head depiction has been found under the Trial of Christ scene. The masterfully composed fresco full with emotions resembles the sparse compositions of the Middle Byzantine era, which lived throughout and influenced the art of the duecento. This is the heritage of the painters who fled Constantinople after 1204, and who found their new maecenas in the young Balkan and Crusade states, or further in Western Europe. It is interesting to note that at Unirea many depictions merge two scenes of the Holy History. The Deposition of Christ scene supports elements from the Lamentation of Christ, while the Anastasis Christ's victory pose refers more to the Resurrection. A Christ in victory is also represented a Resurrection. The scene blended this Western component with the Byzantine style: an angel points towards the empty grave and supposedly towards the three women, but that scene probably was covered by the 19 century structure. Other scenes prove the circulation of Franciscan patterns widespread in Italian painting from the middle of 13th century. The new images enhancing the sufferings like The Flagellum, the Trial shows the transformation process of the Byzantine imagery for Western use. We also find direct allusions to friars in the representation of the cord-bounded hands of Christ in the scene of the Trial, or the cord legged clothes of the holy personages in the Anastasis scene. The technique used is secco-fresco with sepia. The giornates follows the frame of the scenes. Considering the wall paintings, one can recognize the characteristics of the "Italo-Byzantine style". The figures with red haloes tend to fill out the red frames of the scenes. In the space between them, western architectural patterns were inserted. The "horror vacui" is proved by the preference for the numerous decorative patterns, mostly painted al secco. The almost sculptural forms of the figures are painted with different saturations of the same colours, creating a chiaroscuro effect. On the frescoes left, one can identify three masters. One of them, who painted mainly the women side figures and the medical saints, had also the characteristics of the "Linear Gothic Style". The interference of the two styles can be observed also at Cecejovce, Cserkút and Sânta Măria Orlea. Both styles have Byzantine features, but it appears that one should not necessarily search for a direct influence of either style. The discovery of the Unirea frescoes helped to reconsider the importance of the Italo-Byzantine style at the beginning of 14th century. Together with other new discoveries (Văleni de Mureş, Crăciunel) and the reanalysis of the ones which were already known (Sântimru, Cricău, Cecejovce, Cserkút,) the circle of the Italo-Byzantine wall paintings (mostly Sânta Măria Orlea, Spisská Kapitula, Dravce, Ghelniţa) became wider. One can find common features in almost all works of the style circle, but the Unirea fresco is closest to the fresco of Sântimbru, Criău and Sânta Măria Orlea. This is due to the relatively common painting technique and the common source of the iconography. The diversity and the high quality of both styles and composition are raising the question of a possible local mixing of styles.
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The aim of the study is to develop science-based methodology for estimation the values of the partialfactors for design of steel structures for the conditions of the Republic of Belarus, taking into account the specified values of reliability levels. The object of the study is steel structural elements. Methods:mathematical modeling, numerical and analytical methods, parametric and graphic analysis. In January 2010 European standards (EN standards, Eurocodes) for the design, fabrication and erection of building structures were introduced in the Republic of Belarus. The system of European standards (EN 1990) recognise the responsibility of regulatory authorities in each country and guarantee their right to determine values related to regulatory safety matters at national level. According to the reliability concept of building structures adopted in the standard ISO 2394, EN 1990 the target reliability levels for designed structures are set. It caused a necessity to calibrate the partial factors of steel structures for Belarusian National Annex to Eurocode 3 based on the target reliability level using probabilistic methods.
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The church of the Argeş Monastery, founded by voivode Neagoe Basarab (1512-1521) in 1517, was enclosed since its beginning by precinct walls and surrounded by buildings belonging to the monastery. In the first half of the 16th century, on the eastern side of the monastic complex one could find the chapel and the princely house – foundations of voivode Neagoe Basarab, and beside them the princely house and chapel with two towers – erected by voivode Radu of Afumaţi (1522-1529). These buildings are mentioned in archive documents, writings of foreign travelers, drawings and engravings.The restoration of the Episcopal Church in Curtea de Argeş (The Court upon Argeş), between the years 1875 and 1885, made possible the discovery of a fragmentary plate tile from the 16th century, on which an equestrian soldier is portrayed in a battle scene, with a church with two spires. The composition is probably a representation of voivode Radu of Afumaţi and his foundation within the enclosure of the monastery. This ceramic piece synthesises, through its iconography, the political programme of the voivode, namely protecting the Orthodox Church in a period of intense military confrontation with the Ottoman army. The voivode is similarly portrayed as a warrior for the Christian faith on his tombstone in the Argeş Monastery.
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In 2008–2009 the Department for History of Architecture and of Monuments of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics had made a true-to-form architectural survey on the southern tower of the Cathedral of Saint Michael in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, RO). The true-to-form architectural survey is based on the method used in “Bauforschung”, the building archaeology practice developed and widely used in Germany. In this context, survey is not only a tool of documentation but is considered as a research method in itself. We had the possibility to piece together the on-the-spot analysis with the research of archives, too. In the following study we try to add new opinions and to modulate the formerly known building-history of the southern tower. The building of this part of the Cathedral begun in the second part of the 13th century, the last bigger work was taken in 1856. Our research makes an attempt to divide the different periods of the design, and the various restorations on the facades. The work undertaken is not completed, we expect to carry on the survey of the interior in the immediate future.
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Monasteries typically have a structure and layout that suits both the spiritual and mundane needs of their communities: a central area that has a place of worship or meditation, a kitchen, refectory, dormitory, guest house, library, and basic work space; an outer layer with more specified workshops, stables and animal hutches, huts for solitary practice, memorial hall, and cemetery; and a third, most outward ring with orchards, fields, mills, and manufacturing sites. Studying the specific layout and organization of medieval Daoist monasteries, which came to flourish from the sixth century onward, it becomes evident that they follow mainstream Chinese models in their basic layout, imitate Buddhist structures in their buildings and their names, and continue traditional Daoist community centres and meditation retreats. In addition, one can also compare them to ancient Indian and medieval Western institutions, recognizing thereby the unique nature of the Daoist monastery. Planned and executed to imitate celestial landscapes and palaces, it served to attract immortals from above and prepare earthly aspirants for a more divine form of life, while also providing spiritual support for the state and a venue of merit-making for aristocratic sponsors.
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The rural architecture of the Niraj Valley region, Mures county had witnessed a considerable change between the 18–20 century. First the architecture has been similar to the whole central Transylvanian region. In the nucleated villages plots were reversed. These houses were built with timber frame structures, roofs were covered by straw. One entered the middle room that had a baking oven, the main room was heated by a tiled open fi re place. At the beginning of the 20th century a series of local architectural features were developed partly due to influences of nobiliary and urban architecture. The effect of the rural architecture of neighboring regions (Chair of Odorhei and the Small Tarnava valley) can be as well identified. The houses became larger and more complex, richly decorated porticos and gable walls being added to them. New ancillary building types as well as carved gates also emerged.
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Kata Demeter’s art history study begins with the enumeration of old theatre buildings in Cluj. After this, the author turns towards the main topic of her research, the presentation of the building in which the Hungarian State Theatre of Cluj-Napoca presents its special performances. The author speaks about the builders, the inner and exterior spaces of the building, lost and preserved ornaments and about reconstructions. She illustrates old conditions and the present situation with pictures and postcards.
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The National Temple of Divine Providence in Poland has been a source of fierce arguments, even though it was meant to become a symbol of freedom, harmony, reconciliation and solidarity among the Polish people; a votive offering of the nation for the resumption of Polish independence and the pontificate of John Paul II.1 The idea of erecting the building was originally conceived after the signing of the Polish Constitution of 3 May 1791, but for the next 200 years it was not possible to implement the project. It was only in 1999 that a committee supported by the Union of Polish Architects invited tenders for the design of the shrine. The jury selected three winning works from over 100 proposals. Of those three, in May 2000, the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Józef Glemp, who was also the originator of the competition, selected the design by Professor Marek Budzyński. The work was viewed as a very interesting concept, complying with international standards. However, the Management Board of the Foundation for the Building of the National Temple of Divine Providence took a surprising decision to reject the design and announced another, closed tender, inviting only selected architectural teams to participate and thus excluding many distinguished architects, among others one of the previous three winners.
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Our study analyses the 18th century Marosvásárhely (Târgu-Mures) craftsman society through an approach from the perspective of architectural history based on archival sources, and with special emphasis on the development of the status of masons, not ignoring however the situation of carpenters, joiners, locksmiths and potters, who were in close relation with the construction industry. The results of the study unequivocally state that from the mid 18th century onwards there is a definite headcount increase within the construction industry and pertaining to this, within masonry as well. A key role in this process is held by the mostly German craftsmen migrating to the city. Their linguistic and religious separation makes them clearly distinguishable within the society of the city in this period, bringing thus validation and also a special connotation to the concept of “Craftsman Circle”. Hence, the linguistically isolated, mostly Catholic immigrants (especially in the first decades) have necessarily formed a sort of separated community in the predominantly Hungarian and typically reformat society of the city. We must emphasize that the immigration processes in Marosvásárhely are in line with the contemporary phenomena specified by Margit B. Nagy in other Transylvanian cities such as Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca) or Szamosújvár (Gherla). In comparison with Kolozsvár discrepancy can be determined only in the intensity of immigration (number of the immigrants) or in the temporal distribution of the process. The Baroque patterns have permanently spread in Marosvásárhely as a result of the activity of these craftsmen. Arriving from Austria, Bavaria, Silesia, Hungary and from various regions of the German linguistic areas, these craftsmen had already been familiar with the forms and technical solutions of the Baroque, and this knowledge was continuously refreshed and enriched by other influences (even if springing from similar artistic roots) of the various craftsman centers of Transylvania, here it is enough if we mention Anton Schuchbauer working at the Toldalagi-palace, or Romanus Lehr the stucco-modeler from Szamosújvár, or the inevitable import of the products delivered by the stone-cutter workshops from Kolozsvár. Being aware of the rather obsolete architectural circumstances previously prevailing in Marosvásárhely, these immigrants, bearers of a new kind of architectural knowledge, must unquestionably be considered factors of modernization. This basically Late Baroque architectural tradition established due to the 18th century craftsmen was afterwards successfully conserved and prevailed firmly in the city even in the first decades of the 19th century.
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The old buildings of the Reformed College in Marosvásárhely (Târgu-Mureș, RO) were significant role players in the Transylvanian protestant public education, but proved to be less functional for educational institutions at the early 20th century. The directorate of the college commissioned a leader of the government’s architectural program, the Budapest based architect Sándor Baumgarten (1864–1928), to propose a project for the new building. He realized the project plans between 1906–1908, and the construction took place between 1908–1909. This study pursues the so far unknown construction process and interior furnishing of the main building, investigating reports from the directorate meetings of the school, documentations related to the abundant planning material. Thanks to rich written resources and the well preserved furnishing, the assembly hall is discussed in an individual chapter as it is the most ambitiously created, organic Art Nouveau interior of the building. Baumgarten took into consideration the local conditions of the site, as well as the expectations of the directorate when planning the building. As a follower of Ödön Lechner applied the national style, borrowing design elements and patterns from the Hungarian Art Nouveau style. To carry out the construction plans, young Lajos Csiszár, a building contractor from Marosvásárhely was commissioned, along with other local craftsmen. The foundation stone was celebrated on September 10th, 1908, with the construction procedures coming to an end in the autumn of 1909. The inauguration took place in June 1911, once the annexed buildings (primary school, sports-court), both planned by engineer Győző Nagy, and the renovation of the 19th century boarding school were completed. The three storey central building has a U-shaped layout. The unity of its wings is given by the characteristic execution of the facades and the harmoniously applied details. The various fixtures of the building (fences, chandelier etc.), the interior furnishings and the annexed building all celebrate the talent of engineer Győző Nagy. He applied the style of Baumgarten in the design of the furniture belonging to the directorate’s office and the teaching room, and took significant responsibility in shaping the assembly hall too. (The furnishing of the assembly hall dating back to 1910 was complemented in the interwar period with furniture that animated the ornamental language of their Art Nouveau ancestors, while keeping the integrity of its interior style.) The project received a governmental support of three-hundred thousand crowns, but its expenses reached almost half a million crowns by the time its construction and interior furnishing had been completed. With its neat floor plan, inner division striving for functionality, luminous rooms, wide and airy passageways, the building complex is a representative work of this architectural programme. The style and execution of details recall the features of the rest of the gymnasiums planned by Baumgarten (from Zilah/Zalău, Rozsnyó/Râșnov, Máramaros/Sighetu Marmației [RO], etc). However, by being an assignment and investment of the church, and thanks to its adaptation to the irregular, sloping site and local context of the already existing buildings, this work has contributed to the achievement of an original and independent work of Sándor Baumgarten in Marosvásárhely. The building-complex founded in the early 20th century hosts today the Reformed College and the Bolyai Farkas Theoretical High School.
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The article deals with the examples of a syncretism of thetraditional believes and Christianity in the Middle Ages. There is arepresentation of the bull’s head in the architectural decoration of some ofthe medieval churches (f. i. Svetitskhoveli in Mtskheta, XI c., Georgia;the Holy Cross Cathedral on the Island of Akdamar, X c., Turkey;monasteries of Geghard, XIII c. and Sanain, XII c., Armenia); it isobviously connected with an ancient cult of the bull wide-spread in theMediterranean world from the Neolithic period until modern time.
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