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Although the exact year of Mehmed Pasha Sokolović’s birth was not precisely defined, it is assumed that he was born in 1505 or in 1506 in the village of Sokolovići near Rudo in eastern Bosnia. Like majority of other Ottoman ruling elite members, during the first centuries after the establishment of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed Pasha Sokolović arrived at the Ottoman palace by the recruitment or devshirme system (devşirme). Among the recruits, the groups were formed, mostly based on the same linguistic or ethnic / regional origin, which were often held solidarity even at the end of schooling. After testimonies of contemporaries and practical indicators, it was known that this type of solidarity was expressed particularly between Albanians and Bosnians. In current historiography of the Balkan peoples, the most energy has been invested in proving the origin of Grand Vizier Mehmed Pasha and other members of this family. Less space was devoted to the study of practical mechanisms that kept the Sokolović at the forefront of regional policy and the Ottoman Empire, unlike the others, through time marginalized elite families of Bosnian origin in the 16th century. Considering the number and representation of Sokolović at the top of Ottoman administration in the second half of the 16th century and at the lower military and administrative functions, at the first glance it was obvious that Mehmed Pasha, during his mandate, conducted nepotistic practices intisab or patronage based on the different types of connection (bloodline, friendly relationship, marital, ethnic origin, etc.). The Ottoman chronicler Ibrahim Alajbegović Pečevija, who was Sokolović after his mother, told us that the family Sokolović had Bosniaks’ origin and pointed out that Ferhad Pasha and Dervish Pasha Sokolović were Mehmed Pasha’s nephews. The other Ottoman sources as well as sources of other provenances confirmed close relationship with Grand Vizier. Almost all members of Sokolović family in Bosnia built religious and secular objects within their endowments.
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This article examines the influence of the Hanafī philosophy of the Mamlūk period on the early Ottoman fiqh studies. Since the Egyptian and Damascus regions, which were under the rule of the Mamlūks, became the most important centres of knowledge in the Islamic world, it is understood that the Mamlūks’ scientific knowledge was superior to the Ottomans. On this occasion, many scholars who were considered the leading figures of the Ottoman scientific community turned to Egypt and Damascus regions and benefited from the scientific accumulation there. In fact, these scholars who played an active role in the formation of the Ottoman scientific environment completed their education in Damascus and Egypt under the rule of the Mamlūks and graduated from the Mamlūk education system and assumed important roles in the formation of the Ottoman science understanding. During this period, the Hanafī judges (fuqahāʾ), who were active in the Mamlūk community, contributed to the development of the leading names of the Ottoman scientific community and this thought had an impact on their understanding of science. In this context, it is possible to say that the fiqh studies of the Ottomans in the first period were influenced by the Mamlūk Hanafī who had their characteristics. The two main characteristics of Hanafī thought in the Mamlūk period, the hadīth-centred juristic (fiqh) idea and the method of mamzûc (mixed) fiqh style are also seen in Ottoman fiqh works.
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The Ottoman legal system is built on religious (sharīʿa) and customary (ʿurfī) laws. The customary law consists of the rules that are not in contrast to the sacred law. Collection of regulations (qānūnnāme) were the most effective way for the execution of the customary laws. The qānūnnāme included the sultan’s orders and edicts (farman). Ottomans regulated and evaluated the taxes through measurements of lands specific times of the year. These measurements would be recorded into the taḥrīr books (written survey of immovable properties). And the administrative qānūnnāme were included in these books. In the qānūnnāmes, we can find information about the taxes, and the unlawful executions of the customary actors (ahl al-ʿurf) as well as the tax regulations. The qānūnnāmes on sanjak are composed according to the economic, social, and geographical characteristics of the administrative district it is written about, and with this, they provide us information on these issues. In this article, three sanjak qānūnnāmes are taken as the central topic and Kamah, Āmid, Pojega are evaluated in terms of the execution of customary law in these districts. These qānūnnāmes include recordings of various taxing regulations, altered and cancelled executions, amounts of taxes, and punishments. We can compare the three districts in their economic and social characteristics.
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The main purpose of this study is to become acquainted with the educational institutions in Ottoman Empire during and after the 18th century. In this respect, special attention is given to which initiatives were taken in terms of education and which educational institutions were established during the aforementioned period. The need to comply with the West in terms of science, culture, reasoning, and technological advancements has led to the questioning of the current madrasah system. Upon revising the educational system of the madrasah, which had difficulties in being productive and attaining to the necessities of the time, there have been initiatives primarily to establish and structure military schools. These attempts to reform education was intensively seen as from the early 18th century. The abovementioned changes and progress have gained momentum with the Tanzimat era. It was observed that during this period, many schools were established beyond military; education levels were clarified and; females were given right to study. Similar to Tanzimat era during the first Constitutional Monarchy and Autocracy eras, positive contributions toward educational reforms were made. However, beginning from the middle of the second Constitutional Monarchy era, the economic and social complications that the state was going through had a negative impact on the educational system and the practicality of the educational institutions.
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England, known as “the empire without sun settling down” and being among the final winners of the World War I (1914-1918), had one of the heaviest defeats of its history against the Ottoman Empire in the Kut al-Amara, which happened on 29 April 1916 close to Baghdad. Following the defeat of Kut al-Amara, which was the most important war trauma for England during the World War I, the Turks and Germans, as winner side of the battle were evaluated by British prisoners from military, political, cultural and socio-psychological aspects in their memories. Content analysis method is used in the article for qualitative evalution of the data related to the Turkish and German image reflected in the memories of British prisoners after the siege of Kut al-Amara. The alliance between Turks and Germans is regarded as contrast in terms of important elements as national and ethnic identity, language, religion and culture in the main sources of the research as My Compain by Charles Townshend, Besieged in Kut and After by Barber, A Kut Prisoner by Bishop, In Kut and Captivity with the Sixth Indian Division by Sandes, The Secrets of a Kuttite by Mousley which occationally use exaggerated language and the subjective information due to the impact of traumatic defeat.
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The city of Debar, a part of the province of Manastir during the Ottoman period, remained under the Ottoman rule until the beginning of the 20th century. The city has played an important role in the conquests of the Ottoman Empire in Eastern Europe and Balkans. For this reason, as in all other Balkan settlements, the Ottoman Empire prioritized the construction and development activities in the city of Debar and directed the bazaars around the mosques for the physical growth of the city. This building, also known as the Hunkar Mosque, was built in 1467 by Fatih Sultan Mehmed Khan. The mosque is located in the city centre of Debar. Hunkar Mosque is the only still standing monumental building from the thirteen mosques built in the Ottoman period. It is located in a great hazire that is burial area reserved for special people especially inside mosques or Sufi lodges. There is also a tomb building in the hazire. Nowadays, the building which is still functioning as a mosque is registered as a historical monument by the Macedonian Board of Monuments. There is no monographic research on the architectural structure of the building up to now. In this research, the architectural characteristics of the Fatih Sultan Mehmed Mosque are examined in detail. It is thought that the findings of the research will contribute to the restoration phase of the building.
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Mehmed-pasha Kukavica is one of the most prominent donors in Bosnia. He lived in the first half of the eighteenth century and during the short time as a vizier in Bosnia, he built around 80 religious-educational, and other buildings in eight cities of Bosnia. Until now, only one of his endowment charters was known, by which he organized the work of some of his endowments. This paper presents translated endowment charter which was not known until now, by which Mehmed-pasha Kukavica donated a library of 75 manuscript codices, as well some materials for equipping of the newly built madrasa, including 2000 akchas to be handed out for legal lease, and to meet the needs of maintaining his donations from the proceeds. A characteristic feature of the donated library is that it contained a number of medical works, including a commentary on the famous al-Qānūn. Thirty-five codices from this library have been preserved and are now in the manuscript collection of the Gazi Husrev-bey’s Library.
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This paper will present the manuscript work of H̱uṭab taslīm mahr wa ğawābuhā by Ḥasan al-Būsnawī al-Madanī (b. 1190), which contains the sermons made by this author on the occasion of delivering a wedding gift and on marriage. The paper presents the social and historical environment in which these sermons were made. The formal and stylistic features of the sermons were analyzed. The sermons were also analyzed in view of their actuality, i.e. the possibility of identifying the social relations in Medina at the time of their creation, as well as the relations in the Ottoman Empire itself at that time.
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In this paper, we address the issue of conservation and restoration of oriental manuscripts stored in the Gaza Husrev-bey’s Library in Sarajevo. Based on the example of the restoration of oriental manuscripts of the Gazi Husrev-bey’s Library, the paper will attempt to present a methodological framework for the conservation and restoration of oriental manuscripts, present some of the most common problems and challenges, and finally offer some perspectives on more effective protection of manuscripts. The conservation and restoration of oriental manuscripts is a specific area in the restoration of written heritage and library material, which arises from the specificity of the materials used and the methods applied in creation of such manuscripts. In the restoration of oriental manuscripts, in addition to the basic problems relating to all written heritage, i.e. library material, we also encounter several problems that are inherently more common in this type of material. In the first part of the paper we will present the results of the manuscript conservation and restoration project of the Department of Conservation and Restoration of the Gazi Husrev-bey’s Library. In the second part of the paper, based on the results of previous manuscript protection projects, we will present the problems and challenges we encountered during the implementation of the manuscript protection project - their conservation and restoration. Based on the manuscripts that have been processed over the past three years, the Gazi Husrev-bey’s Library’s Department of Conservation and Restoration particularly emphasizes the problems of water solubility of ink and damage to the binding in the form of missing parts or complete covers. Finally, we will outline possible perspectives towards more effective and professional protection of oriental manuscripts.
More...Wahrnehmungen Südosteuropas in Wittenberg
Als Kaiser Karl V. im Januar 1530 zum Augsburger Reichstag einlud, vertraute er darauf, dass die Angst vor der zivilisatorisch vernichtenden Gewalt der Türken die unterschiedlichen Religionsparteien zusammenschweißen würde. Sein freundlicher Ton, in welchem er die beiden Seiten bat, ihre „opinion und meinung“ darzulegen, verband sich mit der Hoffnung, der Reichstag möge eine Unterstützung der Türkenkriege beschließen. Das Szenario, das dahinter stand, ist offenkundig: Mit der Schlacht von Mohács am 29. August 1526 waren die Türken in das Herz Europas vorgedrungen – und sie bedrohten von hier aus nicht allein die habsburgischen Gebiete, sondern auch Sachsen.
More...Fruchtbare Missverständnisse in Melanchthons und Bullingers Briefwechseln
Den protestantischen Predigerbriefen, die in den ersten Jahrzehnten von Ungarns osmanischer Eroberung entstanden, widmete die Forschung seit langem eine große Aufmerksamkeit, aber ohne einen Konsens in der Frage ihrer historischen Auslegung zu finden1. Zwischen 1541-1560 trafen nämlich zahlreiche mündliche Nachrichten, Briefe, Sendschreiben aus dem besetzten Gebiet in europäischen Zentren der Reformation ein, um über die raschen Erfolge einer protestantischen Mission zu berichten. Diese Texte gelangten früher oder später in den Druck, daher konnten sie nicht nur erhalten werden, sondern sie fanden auch den Weg in die dicken Kompilationen des 18. Jahrhunderts, auf denen die moderne positivistische Geschichtsschreibung fußte. So hat sich zu Anfang des 20. Jahrhundert die opinio communis herausgebildet, dass sich die osmanischen Eroberer in die konfessionellen Streitigkeiten zu Gunsten der Protestanten (und vor allem deren helvetische Richtung unterstützend) aktiv einmischten. Im Großen und Ganzen fasst diese Meinung Jenő Zoványis Reformationsgeschichte zusammen.
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Abdulvehab İlhami, who lived between 1773-1821, is one of the greatest representatives of Alhamiyado literature. In addition to the poems he wrote in Bosnian, he is regarded as one of the important intellectuals of the period and the works he received in Turkish and Arabic. At the same time, İlhami, known for his mystical identity, is considered one of the prominent mysticos in public. The period when İlhami lived was a time when the Ottoman State and Bosnia Herzegovina faced many problems in political, military and economic terms. İlhami expressed his deficiencies in the poetry with the irritating and uncomfortable manner of the deficiencies that occurred during his period. In addition to his poetry and mystical personality, he was engraved into the cultural memory of the Bosnian people who were executed by Bosnian governor Celal Pasha. The remaining parts of the dark about the cause of the execution were filled in by the Bosniaks in their own imitations, and they came with a number of menus describing the execution of Ilhami. In fact, the famous satyr that he wrote for Celal Pasha was shown as the reason for this execution. The first and only historical document giving information related to the execution of Ilhami, the governor of Bosnia Celal Pasha, who was sent to Istanbul in 1821, and the reason for the incarceration of part of the execution of some of the soldiers who acted with him, related to the reasons for the killing of Ilhami.
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Turija has been mentioned under this name since the Middle Ages and throughout the Ottoman period, which testifies to the historical continuity of organized living in this settlement. It was a part of the parish and then Ottoman organizational unit Dramesin. The paper provides an overview of the houses and inhabitants of Turija according to the 1850 census, and an overview of the results of the 1879, 1885 and 1895 censuses. The old mosque in Turija was built in the second half of the 19th century, and in this paper the authors present the results of field research of tombstones in the harem of this mosque.
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Kod nas je teško reći koliko treba neka familija provesti vremena u nekom mjestu ili kraju pa da kažemo da je to stara familija ili da pripada starinačkom stanovništvu. Najčešće je to od 500 godina (kraj srednjeg vijeka) pa do 100 godina (austrougarski period). Za grad Tuzlu se može sa sigurnošću kazati da još krajem osmanskog perioda ima više stotina različitih prezimena, pa i familija. Pa bi se moglo usvojiti da starinačko stanovništvo Tuzle je ono koje tu živi od osmanskog perioda, odnosno stare tuzlanske familije su one koje tu kontinuirano žive najmanje 150 godina (od sredine 19. stoljeća). Mada se i porodice koje su doselile u Tuzlu po dolasku austrougarske uprave, u Tuzli ponekad smatraju starim (ali za sve njih se dobro zna odakle su doselile i kojih starih familija u tim mjestima su ogranci).
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In 2016 marks 100 years of the birth of two great scholars: Hazim Šabanović and Adem Handžić. Both of them were Ottoman scholar-historians and Orientalists as well as Islamic jurists-high graduates of Islamic Sharia-theological school (VIST). The institution known as VIST has given not only numerous of Islamic jurists-and-theologians, but numerous of graduates who have gained great reputation in ex-Yugoslavia as well as scholars from the humanities, museum professionals, archivists, bibliographers, librarians, administrative officials, judges, lawyers, even doctors and engineers. This indicates the high quality of not only Islamic, but also the general, education that could be acquired in that institution. Both Šabanović and Handžić were born in 1916 - the first in Poriječani near Visoko, and other in Tešanj. They both finished Gazi Husrev-bey High School (1935) and VIST (1940). Both were briefly worked as judge-trainees (1940-42). For a long time, they were colleagues - employees at the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo. They both made a huge contribution to the world Ottoman scholarship and better knowledge of Ottoman Bosnia and the Ottoman Balkans. In many other aspects their spiritual biographies were different so it is the best to write separately about the importance of their contribution. This article will first deal with Šabanović, then Handžić.
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This paper is an attempt to give a short overview of the political situation in Herzegovina sandžak during the last years of Ottoman rule in Bosnia. During that period, Ottoman rule was more or less in constant hostility and conflict with the non-Muslim subjects in the southeast part of Herzegovina sandžak. All these riots were premeditated tactic of Ottoman state enemies and attempt to expand at its expense
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Torlak Alija was one of the most popular heros of the Ottoman period. During his life, a lot of songs were registered about his strength, courage and bravery, and after his death, his grave became a cult place for Muslims. In this paper, based on the available sources, we will try to partially illuminate this great hero's life and folklore of Muslims Torlakovac and Vince about it.
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This paper presents one example of Venetian contracts for beef trade through the port of Zadar, during the period between 1784 and 1785. All of the contracts were printed in identical form, and are preserved in the number of fifty five. The names of merchants from Sarajevo, dates of conclusion of contracts and dates of transaction were inserted in additional fields. The paper also presents the names of these merchants from Sarajevo, with data on every transaction that they arranged for beef trade. Special attention is paid to the merchant with the surname Socivizza, a family from Sarajevo that was famous for cattle trade. One merchant from this family died in Venice ten years after he concluded the type of contract presented here. The contracts are preserved in the State Archives of Venice, and they are important for understanding trade between Venice and Ottoman Bosnia.
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The modernization concept that started in the last period of the Ottoman Empire was seen as a compulsory way to follow after the foundation of the Republic. Founded in 1923, CHP is the party that ruled the country alone between 1925-1945. Since one party was in the administration it is named as the “One-Party Period” between those years. Between the years 1925 and 1945 content of the modernization was seen in many fields such as political, socio-cultural, economics as being completely Europeanized, which was also reflected in the publications launched in the one-party period. One of the types of publications in which this understanding of modernization is seen as the most obvious is the works for etiquette (ādāb al-muāsharah). From the point of the quantity of these works, it is seen that the etiquette books published in the one-party period are relatively more than the Ottoman period. While 18 works were published in the late Ottoman period, 26 books were published in the one-party years. Within the scope of this research, 26 books with the title including the phrase “ādāb al-muāsharah” were examined. It was understood that the aut-hors fully supported the socio-cultural changes that the political administration of the period wanted to make. Considering that these books were published at a time when religious and moral education was problematic; it is understood that it plays a clear mission and vision role in gui-ding the perception of the value of the society. There are differences in the use of the language of religion in publications before and after 1930. The language of religion which was seen as a mean of legitimizing the innovations brought by one-party management in the pre-1930s publications seems to have been used deliberatetly in the secular expressions, and the religious element, expression and way of living were belittled. In this article, firstly, the conceptual framework was explained and then the publications for the subject were examined in terms of changing the perception of value under the titles of personal, family, social and institutional etiquette. Altho-ugh it was realized with modernization and European influence, it is seen that this issue had been important since the times of Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror and taught as a lesson in schools. Similar courses were included in the late Ottoman education and training curriculum. Looking at the publications launched in the one-party period in terms of authors, it is seen that some of compiled more than one work. In the publications, it was emphasized that personal care means modernization and that both men and women should mind. Otherwise, it is stated that it won’t be valueable. This situation is valid not only for men but also for women. Another set of rules that men and women must follow is the way they conduct in social life. The reason why it is compul-sory to follow these behaviors arises from the thought of ensuring the survival of the state. Ot-herwise, the common understanding was that the state will be shaken. For the reason that the only way the newly established state has chosen for itself is modernization. The survival of the state is mentioned in these works, which will be possible through the daily application of the European tradition. Looking at the works, it is seen that the understanding of family has changed quite a lot. It was stated that the way family members address each other changes and some concepts are not suitable for use. It is no longer inconvenient to enter the houses with shoes, but various types of entertainment such as New Year’s Eve enters into family life. A particular issue mentioned about the family is the understanding of gender equality. It was stated that the old ti-mes/administrations did not provide equality between men and women. The main issue that is expressed primarily for corporate prosperity is respect for managers. The second duty of a citizen who minds corporate success is to work hard and pay taxes. It is often mentioned that the future of the state depends on it. In some of the publications, it is seen that French, German, and Italian manners were taken as guides. While the French influence prevailed in the last period of the Ottoman Empire but at the beginning of the one-party years, it is understood from the publicati-ons that after 1930 the British rules of life gradually gained worth. In the publications, women and girls are mentioned as the most important social segment that must obey the rules. For this reason, it has been tried to express the values through women’s, which are considered in the books of the etiquette. The types of clothing such as veils and burqa are expressed as out of age, and the types of clothing related to women’s issues such as clothing-dressing and eating-drinking are mentioned. According to the published books of this period, it is quite natural for women to drink alcohol and dance with men. Even the woman should have a good knowledge of these. This indicates that the perception of value has changed and / or is desired to be changed. Many etiquette books were published after the one-party period. When these books are examined in general, it can be seen that they are parallel to the political understanding of the period. While publications of the last period of the Ottoman Empire is a signature of modernization from vari-ous perspectives, it is a way of becoming European in every aspect in the one-party period and making sense of value and direction. In fact, while the concept of “ādāb al-muāsharah” was an expression of modernization before 1945, this situation started to lose its importance in the following years and became a conservative expression especially after 2000. As a result, we can express this: Many of the personal, domestic, social and institutional issues mentioned in the etiquette books published in the one-party period are important in terms of being a sign of the changing value perception of the period. In every period, there have been various types of publi-cations which justify the innovations that political will wants to realize. In the single-party pe-riod, it is possible to see the etiquette books as a type of publication expressing the innovations that the constitutive will want to realize. Since the socio-cultural innovations realized by the constitutive will between 1925 and 1945 were directly or indirectly related to religious insights and practices, the works that were published in this period presented a new perception of value to the society.
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