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DIE DOPPELÜBERSETZUNG ALS AUSDRUCK DER SORGE DES ÜBERSETZERS UM DEN REZIPIENTEN DES TEXTES

DIE DOPPELÜBERSETZUNG ALS AUSDRUCK DER SORGE DES ÜBERSETZERS UM DEN REZIPIENTEN DES TEXTES

Author(s): Piotr Owsiński / Language(s): German Issue: 14/2015

The article aims at presenting the phenomenon of double translation of some fragments of the Scripture. The analysis includes three versions of The Acts of the Apostles by St. Luke from the Luther Bible (Letzte Hand), the Marburg/Konigsberg Bible and the latin Vulgata. Confronting the chosen examples taken from the above mentioned translations of the Bible leads to the conclusion that the phenomenon of double translation per¬tains to the following three areas: fragments in which the translator wished to highlight certain content; geographical names and toponyms of foreign origin; the notions that might seem uncleart to the potential recipient of the text. What seems far more interesting is that a 14-th century translator came up with the same idea that drove the work of Martin Luther, who lived much later. It can therefore be concluded that the desire to be understood by the greatest possible number of German Catholics, was not Martin Luther’s original concept. One can see clearly that some of the proposed translations of given passages overlap in both German trans¬lations. What draws attention, is the fact that the translator from Marburg/Konigsberg acted a little more consequently in his work than his younger colleague, who has gathered apprisal for his translation of the Bible for many centuries.

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Simono Daukanto dvibalsio [e.i] ženklinimas „Istorijoje žemaitiškoje“ (1828–1834): <ei, ęi, ie, iei, iey, ij, yi>

Simono Daukanto dvibalsio [e.i] ženklinimas „Istorijoje žemaitiškoje“ (1828–1834): <ei, ęi, ie, iei, iey, ij, yi>

Author(s): Giedrius Subačius / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 66/2016

Simonas Daukantas’s manuscript “History of the Lithuanian Lowlands” (Istoryje Ƶemaytyszka, 1828–1834, preserved at the Library of the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore in Vilnius) is an unprecedented record of Lithuanian history of over 1100 pages in folio. It was written in Rīga during a time when Lithuania constituted a fragment of the Russian Empire. Daukantas was the first author to write Lithuanian history in Lithuanian. His manuscript was compiled a long time before the standard Lithuanian orthography was forged, so variation is present. Daukantas’s variations, however, are extraordinary even within the frame of his time. He used seven main digraphs to mark his Lowland dialectal diphthong [ẹi] (the equivalent of [ie] in modern standard Lithuanian): <ei, ęi, ie, iei, iey, ij, yi>. The orthography of certain words is quite consistent throughout the entire text (<ei> in the words deina ‘day’, Deiwa ‘of God’). Many others, however, were frequently modified or used interchangeably in the process of compilation. The use of <yi> intensified at approximately the midpoint of the manuscript (lyipę ‘[he] ordered’, szyina ‘of hay’), but then in the last quarter it was replaced by <ij> (lijpę, szijnu). Along with these changes, other variants were interjected (leipę, szeina). It was common to use three variants in a single segment of the text (e.g., żeima, żęima, zyima ‘a winter’). Words with the roots starting in <k>, however, followed an entirely separate pattern; in the second half of the manuscript Daukantas stabilized their spelling as <kiey> (kieykweiname ‘in everyone’, kieyste ‘to change’). In a way, Daukantas was open to various cultural influences, though he never followed other orthographic features uncritically. He used the traditional <yi>, which was popular in the previous century, introduced an innovation <ij> due to changes in fashionable Polish orthography, and coined <ęi> on the basis of a meaning transformation of the East Prussian Lithuanian letter <ę>. Certain patterns emerge that cannot be explained by a difference in phonetics, but only by a harmony of letter forms. For instance, in the second half of his manuscript Daukantas obviously matched the letters endowed in extenders <l, p, t> to the equivalents with the descenders in digraphs <yi, ij> (lyipas ‘linden trees’ and Lijpas; pyitus ‘South’ and pijtine; tyik ‘this much’ and tijk). At the same time, he also partly avoided using the digraphs <yi, ij> with the extenders after two consonants at the root-initial position (pagreiiusis ‘those that captured’, kwęiste ‘to invite’, pleina ‘of steel’, snęiga ‘of snow’). Ample variation can be explained by the competing variety of influences and by a conscious or subconscious attempt to seek harmony among the shapes of letters. Daukantas broke his earlier orthographic habits to introduce the changes, but did not uniformly adopt new ones. He might have rather liked his assorted ways of expression and ornamentation in spelling. Analysis of his orthographic patterns allows us to connect particular segments of the manuscript to events in Daukantas’s life. For instance, it is very likely that Daukantas was persuaded to apply certain orthographic changes by his friend Count Jurgis Plateris, who visited Rīga in the first half of 1833. The last quarter of Daukantas’s manuscript contains dramatic orthographic modifications that correspond to Plateris’s orthography in quite a few significant details.

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The Image of Bread in Closely Related Languages through Word Associations

The Image of Bread in Closely Related Languages through Word Associations

Author(s): Ivan Derzhanski,Olena Siruk / Language(s): English Issue: XI/2021

We perform a comparative study of the culturological characteristics of closely related languages through associative connexions which exist in the minds of their speakers and are registered in lexicographic sources. We examine the stimulus ‘bread’, which is one of the most important European and global culturally marked concepts. Our work addresses Bulgarian and Ukrainian in a broader comparison to Belarusian and Russian.

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ДИСКУРС И УЛОГА ДИСКУРСНИХ АКТИВНОСТИ У УЧИОНИЦИ СТРАНОГ ЈЕЗИКА

ДИСКУРС И УЛОГА ДИСКУРСНИХ АКТИВНОСТИ У УЧИОНИЦИ СТРАНОГ ЈЕЗИКА

Author(s): Aleksandra B. Šuvaković / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 72/2020

Considerare il discorso significa riferirsi non solo al piano dell’enunciato (grammaticale, lessicale, semiotico, sintattico), ma anche ai processi di produzione e interpretazione del testo. Questi processi attivano risorse di carattere cognitivo e sociale. A partire dagli anni Ottanta si assiste a una proliferazione del termine discorso nelle scienze del linguaggio, tanto al singolare (dominio del discorso, analisi del discorso) quanto al plurale (i discorsi), a seconda che ci si riferisca alla attività verbale in generale oppure a particolari eventi discorsivi. La diffusione di questo termine è il sintomo di una modificazione nel modo di concepire il linguaggio. Parlando di discorso si prende posizione a favore di una particolare concezione del linguaggio e della semantica, che dipende dalla influenza di diverse correnti pragmatiche che hanno sottolineato un certo numero di idee forza. L’analisi del discorso ha mostrato che il senso non è in ciò che gli enunciati ‘dicono’. Il discorso implica una lettura seconda che è quella del senso interno, delle modalità della sua produzione, delle condizioni della sua emergenza e delle possibilità del suo riconoscimento. Tutto ciò diventa specialmente importante in un’aula di lingua straniera – una scatola nera- dove spetta all’insegnante includere nel processo di insegnameto le attivittà discorsive per sviluppare le competenze sociocultu- rali, lingvistiche, strategiche ecc. necessarie per acquisire la competenza comunicatiвa assieme alla capacità pragmatica di ogni singolo studente.

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ДАНТЕ КАО КОНСТИТУТИВНИ ЕЛЕМЕНТ ДЕСНИЧИНОГ ПРОМИШЉАЊА О СУДБИНИ ЧОВЈЕКА

ДАНТЕ КАО КОНСТИТУТИВНИ ЕЛЕМЕНТ ДЕСНИЧИНОГ ПРОМИШЉАЊА О СУДБИНИ ЧОВЈЕКА

Author(s): Marija Stijepić Pejić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 72/2020

Il paper analizza la complessa relazione di Vladan Desnica con Dante, lo scrittore più rappresentativo del patrimonio culturale romanico. Lavorando sulla base del metodo comparativo-analitico seguiremo la costruzione del personaggio principale della novella Dalla mattina fino al buio Ivo Čavra chi nel Dante trova la sua stessa natura ambivalente discussa in detaglio nel saggio Dante oggi. Lo scopo del paper è di indicare una serie di elementi presenti nel personaggio e nell’opera di Dante che hanno vissuto fortemente nella coscienza creativa di Desnica: lo spirito italiano così vicino a Desnica, la “dualità” del poeta fiorentino, drammaticità della sua vita. In questo scritto cercheremo i punti dell’identificazione dei due scrittori e troveremo: attento uso del linguaggio, forte riflessività, una filosofia personale di solitudine e di sofferenza, taglienti osservazioni nella sfera morale..

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КРИСТАЛНИ "COGITO" ДРАГАНА ЈОВАНОВИЋА ДАНИЛОВА

КРИСТАЛНИ "COGITO" ДРАГАНА ЈОВАНОВИЋА ДАНИЛОВА

Author(s): Jelena Đ. Marićević Balać / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 72/2020

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WITCHER, ПРВОУПОКОЈЕНИ И ОНИ КОЈИ БЛЕДЕ

WITCHER, ПРВОУПОКОЈЕНИ И ОНИ КОЈИ БЛЕДЕ

Author(s): Marijana S. Jelisavčić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 72/2020

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СЛИКА ЖЕНЕ У РОМАНИМА "РЕГЕНТКИЊА" ЛЕОПОЛДА АЛАС КЛАРИНА И "СЕОСКА УЧИТЕЉИЦА" СВЕТОЛИКА РАНКОВИЋА

СЛИКА ЖЕНЕ У РОМАНИМА "РЕГЕНТКИЊА" ЛЕОПОЛДА АЛАС КЛАРИНА И "СЕОСКА УЧИТЕЉИЦА" СВЕТОЛИКА РАНКОВИЋА

Author(s): Ana Huber / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 73/2020

El tema de este trabajo es la imagen de mujer en las novelas realistas La Regenta (1884–1885) de Leopoldo Alas Clarín y La maestra del pueblo (1899) de Svetolik Ranković. El objetivo de este trabajo es demostrar que los personajes feme- ninos del realismo español y serbio son presentados de manera similar, a pesar de las diferencias en los contextos socio-históricos y culturales de España y Serbia de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Ana Ozores y Ljubica Petrović difieren parcialmente de los ambientes patriarcales en los que viven, pero a la vez quieren ajustarse a ellos. Vetusta y Orlovica se presentan como lugares entumecidos y obsesionados con lo tradicional, en los que ningún tipo de especificidad, sobre todo femenina, no puede estar bien vista. Utilizando el método comparativo, comprobaremos cuáles son las similitudes y las diferencias entre ambos personajes femeninos en varias categorías: origen, infancia y adolescencia, estatus social, relación con los hombres, relación con las mujeres, relación con los niños, actitud sobre matrimonio y familia y opinión sobre sí mismas. Encontraremos las similitudes entre grupos de personajes en ambas novelas y así concluiremos cómo es la imagen de mujer en realismo español y serbio.

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Feyzullah Sâcid’in Manzum Mesnevî Tercümesi

Feyzullah Sâcid’in Manzum Mesnevî Tercümesi

Author(s): Yılmaz Öksüz / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 44/2021

Mathnawī, one of the basic works of Islamic civilization, has received great attention since the day it was written. In addition to Eastern languages such as Arabic, Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu, it has also been transleted to Western languages such as German, Dutch, French, English, Spanish and Italian. Feyḍullah Sājid (1892-1978) was one of the translators of the Mathnawī, many translations and commentaries of which were made into Turkish literature. Sājid translated the first book of Mathnawī in 4,118 couplets in syllabic meter and published the first thirty-four of them in Ottoman Turkish in 1928; he later published all of them in new alphabet. Thirty-four couplets, which are the subject of the present study, are successful in terms of meter, rhyme and antibacchius. They have a very simple and understandable style. In terms of rhetoric, they contain strong couplets, as well as couplets that do not exceed the average. Adopting the literary translation method, the interpreter translated the words of the source text by finding appropriate corresponding words in Turkish or using the words in common use. He also benefited from the original words of the source text to a degree that did not harm the simplicity of the translation. While he conveyed the literal meaning in some verses, he used concepts or idioms that had no equivalent in the source text. This approach was not always accurate; it sometimes added richness to the translation, while causing the meaning of the source text to be misunderstood or not to be understood. The translation is in accordance with the content of Mathnawī, except for abovementioned issues. In the part where the rise of the existence is dealt with (1-18), it is stated that ‘just as the ney is taken from the reed, man is separated from the bazm-i alast (the world of spirits), moaning constantly to reach to his homeland’. ‘The person who is addicted to this sorrow looks for a heart that has been shredded with longing to be able to express its concerns. Nevertheless, although everybody assume that they are companions of Mawlānā, nobody seeks the secret he has. His secret is not far from his cries, but not all ears and eyes have the illumination to understand him.’ Mentioning that ‘the sound of ney is fire, not wind’, Sājid lists the ‘qualities of ney’, and then expresses that ‘the days are untimely faded in sorrow and all except for the fish are deceived by the water.’ The translator, who thinks it is pointless to extend the word, concludes this part as follows: Does the novice understand the condition of the experienced/In fact, word needs to be brief now. The translator starts to the section dealing with the need to leave the world by saying that “oh my son, emancipate yourself through breaking the chains”. He then proceeds saying that “The sea that falls into a container will be exhausted in a day, and the ambitious will not be satisfied.” According to him, ‘the remedy for this trouble is love because the one whose garment is torn by love suffers no more from shame or ambition. With it, the flesh made of dirt rose to the sky, and the mountain began to dancing and watching.’ ‘The lover that doesn't burn with love is like a wingless bird’. According to Sājid, who stated that ‘without the beauty of the beloved, the beginning and the end cannot be comprehended, the secrets of love cannot be kept hidden just as the reflections in the mirror cannot be hidden. If the mirror of the soul cannot reflect, that’s because its face is thoroughly rusted.’

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Traducere și pertinență

Traducere și pertinență

Author(s): Irina Breahnă / Language(s): English,Romanian Issue: 1/2021

Following its first edition in 1991, E.-A. Gutt’s work „Translation andRelevance” has become classic in translation studies during last ten years. Its secondedition in 2000 intends to bring out with new clarity the truly unique mandate of translationwhich distinguishes it from other ways of interlingual communication” (2014, p. 208). TheTheory of Relevance (Sperber, Wilson, 1995) focuses on the translator who makes relevantdecisions depending on the addressee. As it is a cognitive theory of human communication,Relevance has a power of explanation and generalization that is strong enough to account forthe cognitive aspects of translation. A particular translation theory is therefore not necessary.E.-A. Gutt insists on this point, which has been criticized many times since.In the present research the author reflects on the role of translation in the Relevanceframework as well as highlights their own account of how cognition and context shape thismode of interlingual communication

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ŻYWOTNOŚĆ ZAPOŻYCZEŃ WSCHODNIOSŁOWIAŃSKICH W GWARACH

ŻYWOTNOŚĆ ZAPOŻYCZEŃ WSCHODNIOSŁOWIAŃSKICH W GWARACH

Author(s): Anna Kostecka-Sadowa / Language(s): Polish Issue: 68/2020

In the article the author presents verification the degree of vitality of East Slavonic borrowings in the dialects of south-eastern Małopolska. Based on own field research, confronted the material obtained from the SGP file with the current state of the research, taking into account the generational diversity of the respondents. The collection of material among the younger generation gave the basis for a reliable tracking of changes. This discussions concerns the thematic filed related to man, degrees of affinity, names of body parts. The remaining East Slavic elements are subject to various linguistic changes, which lead to the modification of the meanings of lexemes and shifts in their pragmatic zone. The vitality of East Slavicism in Polish dialects is influenced by the lack of their equivalents in Polish or the presence of word-forming related forms. Civilisational and cultural transformations affect the language of the rural population and the gradual disappearance of the bustle.

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ZWIERZĘTA W WYBRANYCH TEKSTACH POLSKIEGO, ROSYJSKIEGO I BIAŁORUSKIEGO LEKAROWANIA

ZWIERZĘTA W WYBRANYCH TEKSTACH POLSKIEGO, ROSYJSKIEGO I BIAŁORUSKIEGO LEKAROWANIA

Author(s): Krystyna Szcześniak / Language(s): Polish Issue: 68/2020

The article concerns the presence of animals in folk magical texts, their treatment and place in society. The author states that regardless of the language of zamowa or medical text, many of them mention plants when treating. Many of them also require their use. The plants themselves were often collected at a specific time, blessed during various religious holidays (usually on August 15), and dried and stored in designated places. They very used in the event of illness of people, as well as domestic animals (most often cows, horses, less often pigs, sheep or goats, and exceptionally chickens). People believed that plants were also helpful in diseases caused by evil forces, witches and milk witches.

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Ukraina i stosunki polsko-ukraińskie w twórczości Aleksandra Grozy (1807–1875) na przykładzie Starosty Kaniowskiego

Ukraina i stosunki polsko-ukraińskie w twórczości Aleksandra Grozy (1807–1875) na przykładzie Starosty Kaniowskiego

Author(s): Aleksandra Ewelina Mikinka / Language(s): Polish Issue: XXVI/2021

Aleksander Karol Groza (1807–1875) był jednym z pomniejszych twórców tzw. „szkoły ukraińskiej” w poezji polskiej. Inspirując się rodzimym folklorem i eksplorując najbliższe miejscu zamieszkania tereny – zgodnie z zaleceniem swojego przyjaciela i mistrza, Michała Grabowskiego – Groza stworzył zarówno sugestywne i krwawe powieści poetyckie z silnie zarysowaną postacią Kozaka (Starosta kaniowski, Hryć), jak i przepełnione malowniczym krajobrazem stepów dumy, będące często autorską „wariacją na temat” bajek ukraińskich. Mówiono, że „przyswoił sobie świat tak zwanej wiary w duchy żywiołowe (...), na wierze, czyli jak dziś mówimy, na zabobonie gminu oparte”. Najbardziej znanym tekstem poety pozostaje do dziś powieść poetycka Starosta kaniowski. W artykule analizuje się utwór pod kątem obrazu Ukrainy wyłaniającego się z tekstu, by odpowiedzieć na pytanie, jakie były Kresy Aleksandra Grozy oraz czy jego twórczość może być dowodem na to, że Ukraina polskich poetów to sztuczny, fałszywy, zmyślony konstrukt.

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Лiтературнi вимiри травми у контекстi вийни на Донбасi

Лiтературнi вимiри травми у контекстi вийни на Донбасi

Author(s): Oksana Pukhonska / Language(s): Ukrainian Issue: XXVI/2021

Стаття пропонує до розгляду літературознавчу інтерпретацію сучасної російсько-української війни, відображеної в авторських текстах останніх років. З огляду на те, що вона триває, відповідно змінюється і досвід цієї війни її учасниками, спостерігачами, і трактування цього досвіду. Найгостріші проблеми глобального, власне українського та індивідуального вимірів події знайшли і продовжують знаходити свої відображення у численних творах мистецтва, що свідчить про активний процес культурної рефлексії травматичного досвіду. Основна дослідницька увага у статті звернена на особливості еволюції літературної рецепції актуальної історичної події, її розуміння крізь призму пам’яті минулого, культури, суспільно-політичних реалій. Особливо важливим є акцент на травматичному досвіді як персонажів аналізованих текстів, так і українського суспільства загалом. Автор статті намагається простежити, як змінюється відображення війни в мистецтві, зокрема у літературі. Спочатку вона представлена як наслідок конфлікту посттоталітарних пам’ятей в українській культурі, згодом як суспільна національна травма і, зрештою, як травма особиста на рівні окремої долі, окремого досвіду. Саме на останньому варіанті зосереджено основну дослідницьку увагу у цій студії.

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Дистанционное образование в период пандемии: предваритель- ные итоги (электронное обучение русскому языку как иностранному в техни- ческом вузе)

Дистанционное образование в период пандемии: предваритель- ные итоги (электронное обучение русскому языку как иностранному в техни- ческом вузе)

Author(s): Tatyana Dikova / Language(s): Russian Issue: XXVI/2021

The article discusses the capabilities of the electronic educational platform Microsoft Teams in the context of distance learning when teaching Russian as a foreign language. Among the positive aspects, there are opportunities for feedback from students. At the same time, a decrease in motivation for learning, the complexity of checking written assignments and control is shown. In general, the capability of this platform is characterized as supplementary in relation to traditional face-to-face training.

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Vzťah myslenia, reči/jazyka a výrokovej logiky v kontexte rozvíjania logiky v prírodovedných predmetoch

Vzťah myslenia, reči/jazyka a výrokovej logiky v kontexte rozvíjania logiky v prírodovedných predmetoch

Author(s): Katarína Szarka,Zoltán Fehér / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 3/2021

The current study investigates the connection between thinking, language and propositional logic. Mathematical thinking as an essential component of mathematical competence forms an integral part of the problem-solving of everyday life. Mathematics is a tool of the human skillset for correct and accurate thinking. Logical thinking can be helpful in developing thinking, which is the basis for the ability to solve problems in a creative, non-standard and non-learned schemes way. Propositional logic as a mathematical discipline forms the basic apparatus for logical reasoning that fundamentally supports scientific thinking. Based on the theoretical analysis of literary sources we characterize thinking, language and propositional logic and give a holistic picture of the theme.

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Effective Academic Courses in English for Real Estate and Facility Management

Effective Academic Courses in English for Real Estate and Facility Management

Author(s): Albena Stefanova / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2021

The article considers the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and discusses the features of effective academic courses in English for real estate and facility management in terms of syllabus, curriculum design, authentic materials and key objectives. It examines the possibility to employ an interdisciplinary approach in order to optimize course content and to provide for the balanced development of all components of the functional communicative competence of the students. Honing the knowledge and skills required for successful operation in a professional context is viewed with regard to specialized vocabulary, the specific features of the real estate and facility management subject matter, specialized oral and written communication, awareness of common business correspondence, discourse analysis, strategies for coping with communication problems, etc. In addition and in light of the modern developments in information and communication technologies, effective academic courses for students of real estate and facility management should be designed taking into account the way new generations perceive, communicate and learn as well as by employing the Internet, social media, blogs, e-resources and databases in line with the scientific voices for courses that encourage student engagement and motivation through interaction, exploration, relevancy, multimedia, instruction and authentic assessment (Windham, 2005; Parsons and Taylor, 2011).

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On Production and Use of Tokens of “I”

On Production and Use of Tokens of “I”

Author(s): Maciej Głowacki / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2021

In this paper, I analyze the semantics of the first person pronoun “I” from the perspective of the user/producer distinction. In the first part of the paper, I describe the Simple View (SV) and propose three interpretations of its thesis (following de Gaynesford, 2006). In the second part, I analyze the notions of use and production of a linguistic token. In the next part, I show that all of the interpretations of SV are sensitive to counterexamples. In the end, I discuss possible answers of the proponents of SV and argue against them. The first aim of this paper is to show that SV is wrong, and the second is to convince the reader that the user/producer distinction is of high importance in the philosophy of language.

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The Role of Domenico De Vivo in Developing Russian and Italian Language Studies in the Second Half of 19th Century

The Role of Domenico De Vivo in Developing Russian and Italian Language Studies in the Second Half of 19th Century

Author(s): Alessandro Cifariello / Language(s): English Issue: 7/2021

Very little is known about Domenico De Vivo (1839-1897). He was a disciple of the Italian linguist Giacomo Lignana and worked as a professor of Russian and English language at the Asiatic College in Naples from 1868 to 1870, and then as an Italian language lecturer at the universities of Dorpat and Odessa in the Russian Empire from 1879 until his death in 1897. De Vivo championed his ideas on language teaching and learning in his books Grammatica della lingua russa [Russian Grammar for Italians] (Dorpat, 1882) and Prakticheskoe rukovodstvo dlya izucheniya ital’yanskogo yazyka [A Practical Guide to Learning Italian] (Odessa, 1886; Odessa, 1890), and in his Dizionario Italiano-Russo. Slovar’ ital’yansko-russkiy [Italian-Russian Dictionary] (Odessa 1894). The purpose of this article is to examine De Vivo’s life and works, which represent the first recorded attempt – in De Vivo’s own words – “to promote Russian language learning in Italy and Italian language learning in Russia.”

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The Politeness Systems of Address, Variations across Breton Dialects

The Politeness Systems of Address, Variations across Breton Dialects

Author(s): Melanie Jouitteau / Language(s): English Issue: 11S/2021

This paper provides a synthesis of the various address systems in Breton dialects, and their evolution during the last century. It discusses the available data and provides the elicitation results from recent fieldwork. Three distinct address systems are described: hierarchical T–V (plurals are directed to superiors as a V form), gendered T–V (plurals are directed to women and girls as a V form), and non-dual (the once singular marker noted †2SG is missing in all of the paradigms, and the once plural form noted †V is the unique address pronoun and does not realise a formal marker). These systems are mapped to their respective territories of usage and an analysis is offered of the diachronic evolution and the cross-influences of these three systems over the last century. Most of the speakers in the central and southern area are restricted to a unique address pronoun, like Modern English you. This system is gaining ground towards the coasts, where a distinctive T address among male close friends or relatives gives rise to a T–V gendered system like in Welsh (Watkins). In the remaining North and South-East areas, a hierarchical T–V system organised centrally around age and social status is resisting the extension of the central area much more. Evidence is presented for independent subsystems inside both T–V systems: addresses to animals, to clergymen and to God. Occasional inversion of an expected marker serves emotionally charged interactions (aggressive T, hypocoristic V).

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