We kindly inform you that, as long as the subject affiliation of our 300.000+ articles is in progress, you might get unsufficient or no results on your third level or second level search. In this case, please broaden your search criteria.
Although English law tried to restrict infants’ ability to prosecute, they played a significant role in the private prosecution (appeals) of crime. According to common law, an infant is a person under the age of twenty-one years, which is termed his full age. This article analyzes the model of proceedings in private prosecutions brought by infant appellants between the 13th and 18th centuries.
More...
Transfiguration of Jesus and its cult in Parish of Rachanie (Diocese of Zamość-Lubaczów)
More...
The question of concubinage was very often mentioned in the sources of Polish synodal legislation in 12th–18th centuries. This extramarital union between a man and a woman was defined by the Latin term concubinatus. The more descriptive expressions used to explain this relation are as follows: peccandi libidinum, scelerata consuetudo or damnaticius status. The most extended terminology refers to the most relevant matter for the Catholic Church, namely to break with the sinful intercourse by the Christ’s faithful. The analysis of synodal decrees indicates that provided terminology expressed moral and legal qualification of living in concubinage. It was characterized by the pejorative meaning. Undoubtedly, it reflected the negative attitude of the Church towards these extramarital relations and people remaining in them. Provided terms applied mostly to clerics living in statu concubinatu. It shows how much attention the ecclesiastical authorities pay to clerical discipline. However, the fragments regarding the fight with concubinage of Christ’s faithful are less common. Particular legislators broadly used the terminology provided by the universal Canon law.
More...
In this study the author examines the development and the impact of the strong sexual repression which settled in the heart of the Western Civilization around the middle of the XVI century and which really loosened only starting from the 1960’s. Within the founding tension between the libido of the person and the collective ideals, this process constantly developed during this long period, creating a strong effort of sublimation, under the different successive cultural expressions in relation to the religion, Enlightenment, medicine of the XIX century and the capitalist market. From 1960 to our days, a new approach to the Western sexuality has been developed, testifying about the profound cultural and societal movements.
More...
The present paper deals with the ways in which Jewish communities in the Ottoman Empire handled cases of extramarital relations (fornication) among Jewish men (married or unmarried) and unmarried women. The present study covers a wide range of Jewish legal sources from the beginning of the 16th century to the last decade of the 19th century. As we have seen, the occurrence of sexual relations out of wedlock for married men, or unmarried men and unmarried women, was an extant feature of Jewish society; it was almost certainly much more widespread than adultery. Particularly common were relations between the betrothed, usually leading to marriage. Similarly, cases were common of unmarried women, often maidservants in Jewish homes, who had sexual liaisons with different men. Most of the surviving sources deal with women’s pregnancy and their demands that the men marry them, or at least acknowledge their paternity and pay child support for the babies. Jewish society stood guard over its sexual morality, deliberating about cases of extramarital pregnancy within the confines of the local legal court. The communities’ supervision of sexual morality led to the enactment of new decrees in some places and in rare cases, the offenders involved would be punished by lashes. We learn that Jewish society attempted to conceal sexual offenses from the eyes of the Muslim rulers.
More...
The income of self-governing regions in former Hungarian Kingdom from crafts and trade represented a very important part of their budget. Nobility issued the regulations for prizes of various goods and local measures. Those legal rules were considered the most significant jurisdiction in those autonomous regions. The study wants to present regional noble counties of Bratislava, Nitra, Tekov and Spiš and their economic activities during the 17th and 18th centuries.
More...
Catherine Gibson - History, Memory, and Urban Symbolic Geographies: Recent Contributions to the Historiography of Vilnius Theodore R. Weeks, Vilnius between Nations, 1795–2000 (DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2015), 308 pp. Dangiras Mačiulis and Darius Staliūnas, Lithuanian Nationalism and the Vilnius Question, 1883–1940 (Marburg: Herder Institut, Studien zur Ostmitteleuropaforschung, 2015), 236 pp.
More...
The study is mostly based on documents from the Archives of Congregation of the Mission. The beginning of the Catholic missions in Salonika is traced and especially those of Congregation of the Mission, which replaced the Jesuits (1782 – 1783). Special attention is paid on the relations between foreign missions and the Bulgarians who accepted Pope’s supremacy, known as Uniates. The objects of research are the first Bulgarian bishops Nil Izvorov, Lazar Mladenov and Epiphane Scanoff, whose administrative activities are directly dependent upon the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide and the Ottoman authorities. The French-Ottoman Capitulations (until 1913) aid the Catholic missions but do not influence denomination changes among the Bulgarians. These changes depend on the Exarchate’s actions and on the agents of the Patriarchate, who are very often sent by Russia, “the protector of the Balkan Christians”. The Ottoman authorities involve only in cases when the Christian communities seek solutions to administrative issues or need support in conflicts inside the respective community.
More...
In this article we aim to explain the historical and cultural conditions in which were developed in Lower Albania, the language, education and even the Albanian national idea. These developments in this area encountered supplementary difficulties even compared with other Albanian territories. The presence of a strong Catholic community in the north attracted the attention and protection of the Papacy and the Catholic powers of Europe, which was reflected in the establishment since the Middle Ages, of a cultural inspiration of national character. Rather, in the south of the country simply dominated the concept of the Sublime Porte, that was also adopted from the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople itself and even from the European political and cultural circles, that considered that the Muslims were Turks, and the Orthodox were Greeks. Such a bias conditioned the policies and approaches of the Sublime Porte and of the European circuits, creating difficult conditions for the Albanian national idea. Consequently, in southern Albania, the Greek language continued in the post-Byzantine period to be the language used in cultural and diplomatic circles. It was used for communicational purposes not only by the Orthodox clerical circles, but also by secular circles. Sometimes even some Ottoman dignitaries used to communicate in Greek in their correspondence with Western chancelleries. In many cases, the use of the Greek language in these correspondences was determined by the fact that the profession of the writer and of the emissaries was an attribute of the clergy, for whom the Greek language was the language of faith but also a language of culture. The second reason lay in the broad privileges given to the Patriarchate of Constantinople after 1453 from the Ottoman sultans in the areas of civil administration and education. In this way, with the support of the Sultan, the Constantinopolitan Patriarchy and its network of clerics intended to guide the Orthodox populations on the road of Hellenization. Such a trend was reinforced when to the Patriarchy was granted the right to open Greek schools among Albanian Orthodox populations, and when after 1821, to the Hellenization action of the Constantinopolitan Patriarchy and of the Greek clergy in Albania, was added the organized action of the Greek state. Eighteenth and nineteenth century chronicles are full of examples of this combined action of the church and the Greek state to eradicate the language, culture and national idea among the southern Orthodox Albanians. Despite these unfavorable circumstances, even in the Lower Albania there were efforts for the development of the Albanian language and culture. A famous example is that of schools and publications in Albanian promoted by the Basilian missionaries in the region of Himara, during the 17th and 18th centuries. Also, the efforts to draft Albanian original alphabets, different from the Greek, Slavic and Latin alphabets, testify the development of a national consciousness by the most progressive layers of the Albanian society. It is not without significance, too, that during the 16th-18th centuries, individuals or entire Albanian communities of different cultural and religious backgrounds, considered as an important reference of their identity, well-known figures in the history of Albania, starting from Pyrrhus of Epirus, Alexander the Great of Macedonia and especially Georg Kastriot Scanderbeg
More...
Nadir al-Afsari, who declared his position of shah, took rough measures to clear away the existing economical and political mess in his country. Some social groups, who were against the economical and political measures attempted to be applied by Shah, assassinated him. After Shah was murdered, a political anarchy occurred in the region. As a result of this, approximately twenty khanates emerged in the land of Azerbaijan. One of these khanates was Yerevan Khanate. Yerevan Khanate was founded in West Azerbaijan land with the contribution of historical background. All the rulers of Yerevan Khanate were Turkish. The economical and social life in Yerevan Khanate was always vivid. Especially agriculture, livestock farming and trade were very developed. Economical welfare became very high at times of peace. At times of war, the production in the region became low and there became migration from the region. After Tsardom in Russia tried to take over the Caucasian Region from the beginning of 19th C, Khanate Of Yerevan couldn't avoid being occupied by Russians. Russians made Armenians migrate to the region from Ottoman and Iran land within a plan in order to let Turks become the minority in this land. Afterwards, an Armenian state was founded in this region with the support of especially Russia and some European states. Armenian State is a state founded as a result of a project of Russian state mind in order to split the Anatolian Turkishness and Middle Asia Turkishness, after a struggle of approximately one century.
More...
The aim of this article is to elaborate on the family environment of Cracovian Norbetines from Zwierzyniec. An obituary from 1719, which was found in convent, has been analysed. An essential question that has been an inspiration for the consideration taken in this article is the issue of the nuns' social background. Studies of the obituary from Zwierzyniec have shown, that candidates were recruited from noble families and their fathers held high offices, distinguishing themsvelves by their foundational and charitable activity in favour of ecclesial organisations. The analysis also shows that despite the obituary's concise form, it is a substantial source in the study of composition of nuns' family circles.
More...
The position of military engineers on the reconstruction fortresses Hodzhabey and Ochakov. A description of the towns and villages of Bulgarian Black Sea coast. Ethnographic notes of Bulgarian traditional culture in the 18th century.
More...
The proposed catalog of European coins of 15th — turn of 18th—19th centuries, found in the Central Caucasus, is the first step in creating a complete set of the relevant finds from the whole territory of the Northern Caucasus. It is important to study political and economic relations between indigenous peoples with traders and travelers from different European countries, as well as involvement of Ciscaucasian population in the national Russian market in the 18th — early 19th century. Study of Western and Eastern European coins (German, Polish, Riga and others) found in the central part of Northern Caucasus minted by different rulers of European states and cities helps us significantly enrich our knowledge of evolution of international political and economic relations in the Northern Caucasus in the Middle Ages and Modern Time. The finds of coins minted in the region, in the cities of Tsardom of Muscovy, and later in the Russian Empire, allows us tracing the process of rapprochement of the Ciscaucasian peoples with the Russian lands and their subsequent integration with Russia.
More...
The centre of this study is the topic of the melting in the Ottoman “cauldron” of those captive aliens who, after their enslavement, filled the ranks of the so-called domestic slaves. In the development of this issue, a more special approach was chosen, with emphasis not on the role of the Ottoman state as a regulator of integration-assimilation processes, but on the slave integration “from below”. The aim is to reveal those specific relationships and interactions between the two sides of the “master-slave” dyad which contributed most to the effective incorporation of the enslaved in the Ottoman society. Regarding the territories included, the study covers the Central Balkan region. It is based on diverse sources, including unpublished Ottoman documents from the Sijiles of the cities of Sofia, Russe and Vidin from the middle of the 16th to the beginning of the 18th century. In the course of her work, the author analyses, in a Central Balkan context, some well-known mechanisms for slave integration (such as Islamization, for example) and a number of others that have been either undeservedly underestimated or completely neglected in specialized studies such as: labour and linguistic integration, marriage, assimilation of the Ottoman style and way of living, creation of a network of contacts in the host society, etc. The socialization of slaves is outlined as a process not only gradual but also lengthy. Starting in the first days of the slave’s stay in Ottoman territory, this process continued to evolve with varying degrees of intensity, defined by a number of factors, including the formal legal status of each individual slave (e.g. mazun, mucatib, mudebber, „ordinary” slave, etc.) The process of socialization was far from ending neither with the Islamization of the slave nor with their emancipation. The article emphasizes the active participation of the slave-owner and his family in all stages of the slave socialization, especially in the post-emancipatory phase when, under Islamic law, the relationship between a former slave and a former master grew into a patron-client relationship. The practical dimensions of these patron-client relationships are revealed through several “case studies”, made on the basis of hereditary inventories of six freed women slaves, died in Sofia in the 1670s.
More...
The present study aims to trace the progressive impoverishment of the population in Anhialo and the subsequent stagnation in the economic progress of the region against the backdrop of the social, economic and political processes that took place in the Ottoman Empire in the 17th and the beginning of the 18th century. What we are pursuing in this work is to summarize, compare and complement the research of authors who previously worked on the particular topic.
More...
Until the beginning of the 16th century the viniculture of the Small Carpathian region recorded an increasing tendency and an all-round development in various aspects. In this period of a relatively calm development of viniculture and wine market, new institutions and legal rules came to existence, which fundamentally influenced the expansion of viniculture in the following centuries. In the submitted work we attempt to clarify the organization and administration of viniculture in the town of Saint George in the middle of the 17th century when the viniculture and wine market of the town was at its peak. The basic principles of the organization and administration of viniculture in the town of Saint George have been recorded in the vineyard regulation. The oldest preserved vineyard regulation of Saint George dates back to 1650. We attempted to clarify its origin, purpose and point out the content of particular paragraphs which we consider as the legal rules of the so-called vineyard law. The vineyard law was institutionally represented by the Saint George´s vineyard bureau. It was a council with certain characteristics of autonomy. However, according to our findings, there has never developed a completely independent council in Saint George. The development of organization and administration of viniculture in the town of Saint George was naturally connected with the expansion of the town´s city council which we will also briefly mention to help understand the issue better. The normative community in the town of Saint George were the townsmen or more precisely the city council governed by a portreeve and an alderman. The townsmen tried to protect their vineyards, to ensure the highest possible economic yield and moreover to legalize organizational, administrative, economical, but also neighbourhood and social relations related to viniculture and vineyards in their town and vineyard community.
More...
