18. Yüzyıl Avrupa Porselenlerinde Osmanlı Figürleri

Author(s): Memduha Candan Güngör / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 69/2020

The Ottoman Empire's domination in Europe brings along a great appreciation, admiration and respect to the Empire, together with the fear of the Turks. In the 18th century, travelers and traders from Eastern culture acquainted with Turkey and when they came back, the travel books they told about the ethnographic richness and traditions of the east caused a trend called Turquerie to emerge in a short time. With the first production of porcelain in Europe, the artists who discovered the characteristics of the porcelain, made elegant Turkish figures with fine workmanship, under the influence of the Turquerie movement. These figures, which started to be studied in Meissen (the first porcelain factory in Europe), have been inspired by the modelers of other established factories over time. These works, which generally deal with figures about Ottoman sultans, female sultans, and palace life that are examples of culture from past to present are exhibited in private collections, museums and auctions. In this article, after mentioning briefly the Turquerie movement, which is one of the reasons for the emergence of the figures, the porcelain factory, Meissen, where figures are produced most intensely and flawlessly in Europe and its modelers will be mentioned, and examples of Turkish figure production at porcelain factories that are rapidly spreading in Europe will be given. This study aims to underline how the art of ceramics was influenced by the judgements, way of thinking and aesthetics of the society in the context of its relationship with the collective subconscious, through exemplary works. The Turquerie movement, which emerged at the point where the East and the West touch one another, and the porcelain figurines, which are the reflection of Ottoman figures, are the inevitable results of this effect and interest.

18. YÜZYIL TEKİRDAĞ’INDA SİROZÎ MUSTAFA AĞA’NIN DAMADI VELİ VE KIZI HATİCE ÖRNEĞİNDE STATÜ-SERVET EDİNİMİNDE AİLE BAĞLARININ ROLÜ

Author(s): Fadimana FİDAN / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 2/2021

Tekirdağ is a province that attracts attention with its port that transported the grains of the Thrace region to Istanbul. Most of the time, bostani hasekis were used as state agents in the business of shipping the grain to Istanbul. Although bostani hasekis were also used in the 18th century, the most important difference in this period was that they mostly came from wealthy families. One of them, Sirozi Mustafa Agha, was a dignitary who performed important jobs in the 18th century meeting the food needs of Istanbul. With his businesses, farms and foundations, Sirozi Mustafa Agha was well-known by the State and the people. He was renowned not only in Tekirdağ but also in Istanbul because he was married to Mustafa Pasha’s granddaughter. This kinship and wealth enabled him to be appointed as a state agent for grain supply and as the Bostanji-Bashi of Edirne. However, since he did not have a son to entrust his wealth and status, his sons-in-law took over his responsibilities. He married one of his daughters to the only son of another dignitary from Tekirdağ, another to a haseki, who is also mentioned as a dignitary, and the other daughter Hatice to Veli, son of Habib Agha. Among the grooms, for Veli, in particular, Sirozi was the best example in terms of prestige, career and wealth. In fact, as a result of his marriage with Hatice, Veli was able to turn to one of the rich people of Tekirdağ and was appointed to continue his father-in-law's responsibilities over time. The present study focuses on Mustafa Agha's son-in-law Veli, who controlled some of his wealth, and his daughter Hatice, describing the spouses' inherited wealth and living standards, and the network of relationships forming around that wealth. The article aims to contribute to the understanding about the role of families in the status-wealth relationship of the 18th century on a micro scale and will contribute to the family history of Tekirdağ and set an example regarding the network of relations in the Ottoman society.

18. Yüzyılda Gürcistan’da Derlenen Gürcüce-Türkçe Okuma Kitabı

Author(s): Sergi Cikia,İlyas Üstünyer / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 72/2021

This article focuses on the introduction of the Georgian-Turkish Reader that was compiled in Georgia in the 18th century for teaching students Turkish and looks at how it explains Turkish pronunciation and words in Georgian. We also examined Georgian sources referring to this manuscript using comparative and historical linguistics and compared our findings. Judging by the use of Greek letters in the text, we estimate that Ioakime Protosingelos, who had immigrated to Georgia from [Southern] Cyprus and settled down in the city of Vardzia, had probably written it. Our findings revealed that it was, rather, written in the Georgian Mkhedruli alphabet somewhere between 1780 and 1790. In addition, we discovered that the author had devised a clever system to phonetically transcribe the Turkish vocabulary into Georgian. Our findings should shed light on the relationship between Turkish and Georgian as languages, and the history of Turkish being taught in Georgia.

18TH CENTURY SERBIAN ARCHITECTURAL PRINCIPLES IN THE FORMER PROVINCES OF THE HABSBURG EMPIRE, A CASE STUDY ON BANAT AND HUNGARY

Author(s): Mihaela Vlăsceanu / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2017

The baroque style has been often regarded by specialists as one of the first international movements transcending the limits of time and space, manifesting in areas found far from the centre that set the trend. The ideological discourse promoted by the Habsburgs had as a model the scenery of the great cities in the empire, with urban principles that stated the importance of the parochial church, or the main square adorned with monumental sculptures as visual rhetoric. It was quite a fashion to assert allegory and symbols as forms of power manifestation, having didactic and decorative values at the same time. The image instructs, the form sets boundaries to what is seen, and becomes a model to be followed in a manner that sets the prototype. The architectural prototypes of the churches raised in Hungary and Banat in the 18th century were configured by Lipót Kollonich. During Leopold I the Serbs were allowed to build churches made of stone replacing the wooden ones from the previous century. The study aims to present a comparison between the Serb architectural topography and style in two of the provinces found in the boundaries of the Habsburg Empire. How the central European models were received and set as trends in religious architecture is the main target of this research.

300 DE ANI DE LA NAȘTEREA BARONULUI SAMUEL VON BRUKENTHAL (26 IULIE 1721 - 9 APRILIE 1803)

Author(s): Gudrun-Liane Ittu / Language(s): Romanian Issue: 1/2021

Three Centuries Since Baron Samuel von Brukenthal was Born (26th of July 1721 - 9th of April 1803). Baron Samuel von Brukenthal was an outstanding personality, a man of great erudition and refined taste, whose political career culminated with the dignity of Governor of Transylvania, a dignity he held between 1777 and 1787. Brukenthal was the only Transylvanian Saxon who enjoyed this great honor. Living for many years abroad, he got acquainted with Viennese cultural patterns he tried to implement in his own country. As a Transylvanian representative of the Enlightenment, Brukenthal became famous through his major creation, the first museum in the South Eastern part of Europe opened in 1790 to connoisseurs and foreign travelers and in 1817 to the large public. His fine art collection comprised about 1100 paintings belonging to the major European art schools. Besides paintings he also had a rich collection of etchings in copper, a library consisting of about 16000 volumes, rare archeological objects, as well as a numismatic collection and one of minerals. But his sphere of interest was much wider, including a large scale of sciences, the educational system, the musical life of Sibiu, the art of gardening.

A 18. századi új elit vagyoni helyzete a Magyar Királyságban

Author(s): Tamás Szemethy / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 81/2020

The study examines the financial situation of individuals promoted from common gentry to high nobility. Biographic data of altogether ninety-one individuals were gathered to explore their financial situation, primarily their landed estates. The perceptions of promoted nobility were rather poor by their contemporaries and posterity alike. They were often portrayed as upstart court favourites or army officers subordinating everything to the interest of the empire, amassing wealth and building large stately homes to compensate for their humble roots but never attaining the financial standards of the original aristocracy. The study assesses the wealth of the members of the new elite (primarily, their landed property) and places them in the context of the original aristocracy to reveal the differences between their wealth and property. The overview of the whole social segment is nuanced by a case study: the rising of the Malonyay family provides an excellent example for the examination of a possible strategy – also adopted by other families of the same standing – to sustain their wealth and aristocratic status.

A Balkan Trilogy

Author(s): John K. Cox / Language(s): English Issue: 03/2006

The review of: 1) Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989: From the Ottomans to Milošević by Tom Gallagher. London: Routledge, 2001. pp. xvi + 314. Maps, index, bibliography, notes. Hardcover. 2) The Balkans after the Cold War: From Tyranny to Tragedy by Tom Gallagher. London: Routledge, 2003. pp. 256. Index, bibliography, notes. Hardcover. 3) The Balkans in the New Millennium: In the Shadow of War and Peace by Tom Gallagher. London: Routledge, 2005. pp. xv + 232. Maps, index, bibliography, notes. Hardcover.

A báni méltóság és viselői a 18. században

Author(s): Gyula Csaba Horváth / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 01/2018

In the 18th century, the bans of Croatia were mostly high-ranking military men (except during the reign of Joseph II). Their earlier connections with Croatia and/ or Slavonia played no important role in their appointment. Usually they did not reside in Croatia until the banship of Francis Nádasdy. In the first half of the century, the ban’s dignity was the second most important after that of the judge royal. The bans were mostly very close relatives (their connections were commonly closer than the fourth degree, the limit of legitimate marriage under canon law). At the beginning of the century, Adam Batthyány was in the middle of a kinship network, and so did in the second half of the century Francis Esterházy. The only relative outsider was Francis Balassa. So in both aspects, the exceptions fell into the reign of Joseph II.

A belső transzferek szerepe az Orosz Birodalom igazgatásában

Author(s): Ekaterina Pravilova / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2015

The analyzes the development of the Russian Empire’s financial policies in the imperial borderlands. It examines Russian economic development from the “imperial perspective”, focusing on changing patterns of relationships between the Empire’s centre and its peripheries. The first part traces the evolution of an imperial budgetary system from the beginning of the 19th century, when the acquisition of Poland, Finland and Transcaucasia created a new phenomenon in the financial system - the budgets of borderlands. The second part deals with the persistent problem of the “costs of empire”. It analyzes the discourse of specifically “imperial” financial burdens in the Russian Empire and scrutinizes different models of how the various regions were supposed to participate in covering Russia’s military expenses. Special attention is given as to the evolution of taxation structures in the borderlands. In the conclusion, the author develops her vision of a well-run “imperial financial management” and analyzes successes and failures of Russia’s economic policies in the borderland.

A birodalom, a birodalmi államjog és a protestánsok

Author(s): Gabriele Haug-Moritz / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 2/2014

The paper seeks to answer the following question: How did the political practice of the Protestant Estates change in the Holy Roman Empire under the influence of the developing imperial state law elaborated mostly by Protestant legal experts. The author presents three case-studies. At first she focuses on the Imperial Diet of Augsburg held during the Schmalkaldic War in 1550. In the second case she examines the debates on the implementation of the decrees of the Westphalia peace treaties around 1650. The third scrutiny sheds light upon a conflict between the Aulic Council and the league of the Protestant Estates, known as Corpus Evangelicorum, which took place subsequent to the War of the Austrian Succession in 1750. The analysis demonstrates the underlying difference between the examined eras. Despite the diminishing imperial influence, the model of a Catholic Empire headed by the Emperor was not questioned during the 16th century. From the beginning of the 17th century, however, imperial state law, elaborated predominantly by Protestant legists and supported by the Protestant Princes, had already queried the leading role of the Emperor. The common political stand of the Protestants, which had grown strong after the Peace of Westphalia, resulted in a more and more powerful interpretation of the Empire that derived from the Catholic understanding essentially. The struggle between the two conceptions led to the gradual paralysation of the political system from the mid-18th century, which finally contributed to the dissolution of the Empire as well.

A Clown’s Journey: 3 X 7

Author(s): Natalia Afeyan / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2021

A clown travels through times and identities. A personage is handed over to different creators and audiences. A voice changes its purpose. This article observes the metamorphoses of Pierrot from Commedia dell’arte through the romantic malheureux, the decadent Dandy to the perpetual loser and peace-seeker of the turn of the century, following the works of three authors: Giraud, Hartleben, and Schönberg. When and where is this journey going to end? – We don’t know.

A Collective Portrait of Teachers of Kyiv Institute of Noble Girls in their daily routine in the 19th Century

Author(s): Ilona Zhovta / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2020

The paper explores the status, rights, and responsibilities of teachers of the Kiev Institute of Noble Girls, which were regulated by the Charter of that institution and official documents of the Office of the Institutions of Empress Maria. It is shown the connection between the institute teachers and class inspectors, and the division of tutors. Also, it highlights the teachers’ work load, salaries, and the impact of teachers on girls’ daily routine life, which are based on the memories of the alumni.

A Constructive and Speculative Case of Bullshit Art: the Etchings of G.B. Piranesi

Author(s): Sarp Tanrıdağ / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2021

This article analyzes the constructive and speculative forms of bullshitting in the art field through the etchings of G. B. Piranesi. In reviewing the historical context and the allegorical and technical aspects of his etchings compared to H. Frankfurt’s definition of bullshit, the study contends these artworks’ propositional and unique rhetorical languages. Consequently, it explores a potential form of bullshit art that is manipulative and fictional but also constructively critical.

A császári-királyi hadsereg ellátási rendszere a Magyar Királyságban az 1751. évi szabályzattól 1815-ig

Author(s): Balázs Lázár / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 04/2020

The compromise peace between the Hungarian estates and the Habsburg court that closed the Rákóczi revolt in 1711 set the framework for the provisioning of the imperial army which was stationed in Hungary. While the military leadership had to take into consideration the country’s interests, the estates had to acquiesce in the permanent presence of a foreign military on Hungarian soil, the provision of which, however, no more constituted an intolerable burden for a country in the process of regeneration after the end of Ottoman occupation. The supply of the army was predominantly made in kind (food and fodder) instead of in cash, in full accordance with the local conditions. Presenting the institutional framework and the regulations, the study shows that both the Hungarian political elite and the Viennese central administration made considerable efforts at regulating the coexistence of army and society, and at limiting the abuses of the military. As the reforms of Joseph II to re-regulate army provision by transforming the duties into a permanent tax proved ephemeral, the regulation of 1751 remained effective until as late as 1848.

A csikóbőrös kulacstól a kannás bordalig. A bordal változásai a magyar lírában

Author(s): Csaba Horváth / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2021

The drinking song as a genre just as the intoxication as a topic always belonged to literature. The drinking song was very popular in Hungarian literature in the 18th-19th centuries. It became a very significant form for two reasons. On the one hand it was based on a very strong ethical and aesthetical community which gave a collective voice to the writers of drinking-songs, and on the other hand wine as a drink was a forming element of the early modern nationalist Hungarian identity within the Habsburg Empire. The genre was so popular that most of the representative authors of the Enlightenment, Romanticism and different eras of Modernism wrote poems of this style - while every one of them shaped the genre for their own way of writing. For the 20th century the drinking song’s possibilities have changed completely. The historical and ontological experiences of the World Wars brought a brutal end to the previously accepted relations between the individual and his/her community. The ethical and poetical community which once had given the basis to the genre was over. The so called Kádár-era, the “soft-dictatorship” of the second half of the 20th century, converted the joy of common drinking into the alcoholism of lonely self-destruction, so the Hungarian poetry of the epoch had to “renew” the genre. The sometimes ironic, sometimes melancholic way of speaking was able to express that the values of the ancient drinking songs were not valid any more.

A fennmaradástól a függetlenedésig. A Spanyol Monarchia és itáliai tartományai, 1665–1713

Author(s): Antonio Álvarez-Ossorio Alvariño / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2017

The Spanish Succession War was a civil and international conflict. It remarks the end of Spanish dominion in Italy, but it was the end of a long process of desegregation and not a fortuity happening. It’s a long term process more complex than an explanation of a falling down of an Empire. The Italian elites from 1640 were increasingly autonomous and, the weakly Spanish power, give them more authority in the second half of the century. They gained a position that determines that after the threats of Utrecht and Rastadt the change of sovereignty did not disturb, essentially, the dairy life, business and social behavior of the Italian elites (with the exception of singular personalities and a little group of families).

A francia külpolitika és Magyarország a pozsareváci béke idején

Author(s): Ferenc Tóth / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2018

After the defeat of the Rákóczi uprising European diplomacy went through drastic changes. Following the War of Spanish Succession, the great European powers made stronger commitments to peaceful conflict resolution and “balance of power” politics. The death of Louis XIV also caused significant changes in French foreign policy. The new French government aspired to improve French-English relations, which led to the alliance of these two great powers, and later to the creation of the Triple Alliance when the Dutch Republic joined in January 1717. The conspiracy led by Cardinal Alberoni questioned the division of the Spanish inheritance established in the peace treaty and seriously threatened peace in Europe. As a reaction the Habsburg Empire also joined to alliance in 1718, forming the Quadruple Alliance. The new European political landscape was not favorable for the continuation of the Hungarian independence movements, and the new shapers of French foreign policy did not support the Hungarians working against their legitimate ruler either. For Francis II Rákóczi, who fled to France after the Treaty of Szatmár, the reignition of the Habsburg-Ottoman war in 1716 presented a new chance to spark rebellion in Hungary. Rákóczi accepted the Sultan’s invitation in 1717 and travelled to Turkey. To the disappointment of the emigrant Hungarians, the war was near its end, and the Treaty of Passarowitz extinguished all their hopes. After this, French foreign policy treated the question of Hungarian political emigration as a primarily Ottoman issue. However, on the level of secret diplomacy they kept the fate and plans of the Hungarian emigrants under surveillance, and in certain political situations -like during states of war- sometimes they renewed their relations with Hungarian emigrant leaders through Hungarian agents in French service.

A Gyergyai család meggyökeredzik Kolozsvárt. A dinasztiaalapító Gyergyai Pál halálának 270. évfordulójára

Author(s): György Gaal / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2021

The Gyergyai family was one of Kolozsvár’s (Cluj-Napoca) most important Unitarian families in the 18th–20th centuries. They originated from Seklers’ Land, from Bözöd (Bezid), Kibéd (Chibed) and Kissolymos (Șoimoșu Mic). Mihály Gyergyai (16??–?) was granted the rank of “lófő” nobility in 1655 from Prince György Rákóczi II for participating in a war. His grandson, Pál Gyergyai (1689–1751), came to study at Kolozsvár’s Unitarian College. There he was elected senior of the school. He twice married wealthy widows and became an important citizen of the town. With his first marriage he obtained the famous Gyergyai House in the Central Square of Kolozsvár which the family owned until 1875. He was elected to many positions including as the town’s senator. He was also Kolozsvár’s deputy to nine sessions of the Transylvanian Diet. Gyergyai represented the interests of the Unitarians in the Town Council and in the Diet. He served as curator of the Kolozsvár Unitarian Congregation and was one of its councilors in very difficult political periods. The Gyergyai name is preserved in a 1734 Latin description of Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca, Claudiopolis). He and three other members of the Town Council described all the important buildings and copied their inscriptions, the legislation of the town, and the responsibilities of the town-council. They also compiled a history of town’s churches and schools, as well as its population and possessions. This was twice translated into Hungarian (1865, 1944), and is considered one of the most important sources of the history of Kolozsvár.

A Habsburg Birodalom felsőoktatási rendszerének átalakulása a XVIII. század második felében

Author(s): Krisztina Kissné Bognár / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 6/2007

Către sfârşitul secolului al XVIII-lea, sistemul de învăţământ superior din Imperiul Habsburgic a cunoscut schimbări semnificative. Monarhii luminaţi s-au străduit să pună în practică ideile venite din vest şi pe tărâmul politicii învăţământului. Măsurile privind reforma sistemului organizatoric, a programei, au facilitat progresul şi diversificarea ramurilor ştiinţifice. La aceasta s-a adăugat începutul învăţământului profesional, tehnic în special, prin deschiderea primelor instituţii de acest gen. Toate acestea au făcut posibilă naşterea învăţământului superior modern Lucrarea de faţă este structurată în jurul a patru probleme principale: modul de pătrundere a ideilor iluministe în Imperiul Habsburgic şi obiectivele concrete ale reformei învăţământului, o prezentare a instituţiilor de învăţământ superior înaintea secolului al XVIII-lea, reformele propriuzise din cadrul universităţilor din Viena şi Tirnavia, Buda şi Pesta, începuturile învăţământului profesional. Autoarea consideră că, dată fiind lipsa burgheziei în centrul şi estul Europei, propagarea ideilor iluministe s-a realizat prin intermediul reprezentanţilor aristocraţiei, în cazul de faţă rolul iniţiator, dar şi punerea în practică, a aparţinut monarhilor luminaţi, Maria Tereza şi Iosif al II-lea. Modernizarea imperiului necesita un număr crescând de specialişti, - scopul principal al reformei învăţământului. De aici, caracterul pragmatic al măsurilor luate. După un scurt istoric al învăţământului din secolele anterioare, este prezentată situaţia de la mijlocul secolului al XVIII-lea, când, atât cadrul organizatoric, programa, cât şi metoda, erau anacronice, nu mai serveau noilor necesităţi. Reformele au vizat mai întâi Universitatea din Viena, apoi pe cea de la Tirnavia care, ulterior, a fost mutată la Buda şi Pesta. În cadrul politicii de modernizare şi centralizare, obiectivele reformei au fost: îndepărtarea iezuiţilor de la conducerea universităţilor şi controlul direct al statului, uniformizarea învăţământului în întregul imperiu, reînnoirea programei şi a metodicii de predare, sporirea numărului instituţiilor, diversificarea obiectelor de studiu prin înfiinţarea noilor catedre care reflectau separarea ştiinţelor în noi ramuri, introducerea limbii germane ca limbă de predare, renunţarea la obligativitatea jurământului pe Imaculata Concepţie, care a permis şi tinerilor de alte confesiuni să acceadă la grade ştiinţifice, toate acestea subordonate necesităţilor modernizării Imperiului. Unul dintre actele normative care au reprezentat o turnură în reorganizarea învăţământului este Ratio Educationis (1770). Fondarea învăţământului profesional de nivel superior s-a înfăptuit pe baza aceloraşi considerente pragmatice: asigurarea specialiştilor necesari pentru valorificarea bogăţiilor subsolului, lucrărilor hidrotehnice, modernizarea infrastructurală, modernizarea armatei, introducerea noilor tehnologii în agricultură şi creşterea animalelor, administraţie etc. Un rol important l-au avut în acest sens Academia Militară de la Viena, Institutul de Inginerie de la Praga, noul Institut de Geometrie şi Hidrotehnie organizat în cadrul universităţii de la Buda, ca să amintim doar câteva dintre cele prezentate.

A Hasburg-uralom erdélyi következményei a korabeli magyar emlékirodalom láttatásában

A politikai élet és az intézményrendszer területén jelentkező átalakulások

Author(s): Gyöngy Kovács Kiss / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3-4/2007

The presentation of the consequences referring to the political and institutional system of the Habsburg rule by Hungarian memoire writers of the same period happens in different shapes and depending on the scale of the consolidation of the ruling. At the same time, we may observe that these changes concerned mainly those memoire writers who are directly involved (are subjects or, at least, witnesses) of these changes. It is quite occurring that the presentation of the political consequences of the Habsburg rule in the initial period of the integration is more emphasised. During the years and the expansion of the Austrian rule, when the position of Transylvania (and within that of the upper classes) seems to lack any alternative, the memories tend to deal with the implementation of these political aims, their influence on the society, as well as the administrative, financial and legal reforms. These topics are treated only if and when they represent a certain change within the traditional structures and organization. In the memoires the allusions, references or concrete descriptions concerning the political reflections of the Habsburg installation as well as the administrative changes it produced were interpreted by the writers merely as „secondary information”, as the direct purpose of the writers is not to analyse or follow up the existing policy or the organizational measures. The memoire writers enumerate facts and events selected from their own as well as the social life.