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A katolikus egyház helyzete és intézményrendszere a kora újkori Pozsonyban

Author(s): István Fazekas / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 02/2018

The study aims to explore the network of ecclesiatical institutions in the city of Pressburg, the new capital of the Hungarian Kingdom, in the middle third of the seventeenth century. Although the majority of the city’s population had adopted the Protestant faith, the medieval ecclesiastical infrastructure survived the changes basically unharmed. There continued to function the collegiate chapter with its provost and fourteen canons, as well as the cloisters of the Marian Franciscan friars and Poor Clares. The main reason for that was the emergence of Pressburg as the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom, the life of which was consequently influenced not only by the local community and its elite, but also by the government institutions settled there, and the members of the national political elite who acquired lands in its neighbourhood. The network of Catholic institutions in the city provided a strong support for the early activities of the Society of Jesus.

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A katonai rangok terminológiája II. Rákóczi Ferenc Confessio Peccatoris című művében

Author(s): László Takács / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2020

It was during his emigration to France, when Ferenc Rákóczi II had begun writing his Latin work, Confessio Peccatoris, in which he looked back at his life and examined how God’s grace had been affecting it previously. The period of the War of Independence, i.e. the period between 1703 and 1711, is not part of this particular autobiography. Nevertheless, the text regularly refers to persons who played an important role as soldiers or leaders during the War of Independence and later played a significant role in Rákóczi’s life. Rákóczi also completed the history of the War of Independence in French, entitled Memoirs during the same period. The study focuses on the consistency of Rákóczi’s terminology used to express military ranks in the Confessio Peccatoris and three other sources; namely the terminology of historical sources, the Regulamentum universale issued during the war of independence, and the terminology of the Memoirs. The paper also attempts to detect any differences between each person’s rank mentioned in the Confessio Peccatoris and the three latter sources. From the similarities and differences we can draw conclusions about Rákóczi’s self-stylization approach and the extent to which he followed and knew the contemporary military and strategic literature and the memories of other warlords.

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A kőkeszi plébánia anyakönyvének bejegyzései

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A kőkeszi plébánia anyakönyvének bejegyzései

Author(s): Attila Baki / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2022

The historical source presented here is of local historical importance. It gives a mosaic-like insight into the past of the settlements of Gyürki (Ďurkovce), Kőkeszi (Kamenné Kosihy), Sirak (Širákov), Szelény (Seľany), Terbegec (Trebušovce), which were under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the former parish of Kőkeszi (Nagykürtös/Veľký Krtíš district). This material is significant in terms of local history, since the history of the above-mentioned villages (based on the surviving archives and other sources) is still unprocessed. This source, as a common meeting point for local history, shows that whatever the size of a settlement, big history (wars, epidemics, national and other changes) has reached the lowest levels in every age, leaving its mark on the daily life of the community living there. The handwritten entry is to be found in the register of baptisms, marriages, and deaths of the former parish of Kőkeszi, dating from 1735 to 1786. The original of the register is kept in the State Archives of Banská Bystrica.

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A kolozsmonostori konvent a fejedelemség korában

Author(s): Zsolt Bogdándi / Language(s): Hungarian

On the territory of the developing Transylvanian principality there were three ecclesiastical institutions which took part in the issuance of authentic charters: the Chapter of Transylvania residing in Gyulafehérvár, the Convent of Kolozsmonostor and the Chapter of Várad. Their medieval history has been already partially studied, but in neither of these cases the research did not cover their activity during the Transylvanian principality. Only in the case of Várad we could refer to the lack of sources because, after the capture of the fortress, the Chapter’s archives perished, but even so someone could attempt, on the basis of the issued charters to reconstruct its activity (we already have such an example for the Convent of Szekszárd). Although truncated, the archives of the other two loca credibilia are reserved in the collections of the National Archives of Hungary, so any other scientific investigations are possible. The research of their early modern activity and the publication of a major part of the protocols remains an urgent and possible task of the historians. The publication of these sources would largely extend our knowledge of Transylvanian law and history of institutions, and they would generate a basic collection of sources for further research.The main aim of this book is to present the characteristics of the charter-issuing activity accomplished by the early-modern Transylvanian loca credibilia by examining the case of the authentication place of the Convent of Kolozsmonostor, where the majority of the protocols have been preserved. We attempt to answer the following questions: whether the reorganized and secularized Convent, which has preserved its designation and has been moved together with the archives to Kolozsvár, has met the expectations of the society in terms of preservation of the documents and issuing of charters? How did it work and what was its role in the Transylvanian society?After the establishment of the Transylvanian state, the loca credibilia that entered under its jurisdiction, underwent a peculiar transformation. On the same grounds as similar institutions from Hungary, a specific Transylvanian institution, the office of the requisitors came to life to satisfy the needs of the society for authentic charters and to ensure the conservation of the archives. After twenty years of uncertainty, during which the secularized institution issued copies from the Convent’s archives under the seal of the city, the time for reorganization has arrived. The appointed requisitors had the right to complete all the activities made earlier by the places of authentication, but because there number was small, other institutions (envoys of the voivodes, counties) have gradually taken their place in the external authentication activity. In this process, the articles of Approbatae presumably constituted a turning point. From the second half of the 1650s, the external authentication activity (inspection of boundaries, seisin of estates to new owners, inquiry, etc.) was likely to disappear.At the same time, the disasters that occurred in 1658, and the subsequent long term instability, caused such a break in the activity of the Convent that we could consider it as the end of the institution’s early-modern history. Thereafter the charter-issuing activity was more and more casual, the place of authentication became mere depository of charters and produced copies of the documents in his custody.One could say that it was the moment which marked the end of the institution’s history of and the beginning of the archive’s history. In the age of principality the archives of the Convent together with the sacristia of the Chapter from Gyulafehérvár and probable Várad as a result of the measures taken by the princes and the Orders have played the role of the state’s “National Archives”. Finally, in order to reflect on the activity of the Convent from Kolozsmonostor during the age of principality, we should compare László Papp’s point of view, based on the previous literature and law-articles, and the impedimentums listed in 1655 by one of the requisitors, István Pálfi with the “products” of the Convent’s activity: the registers (protocolla) and the charters. Both the quantity and the quality of the preserved archive materials prove that the reorganized Convent remained for a long time one of the major charter-issuing institutions of Transylvania.

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A konstantinápolyi francia diplomácia és a magyarkérdés a Rákóczi-szabadságharc korában

Author(s): Géraud Poumarède / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2020

This study is an analysis of the diplomatic activity of the Marquis de Ferriol, French ambassador to Constantinople during the period of the Hungarian War of Independence. Knowing the Hungarians well since his missions to Emeric Thököly, Ferriol tried to engage the Ottoman Porte in an active policy in favour of Rákóczi. These attempts were unsuccessful because of Ottoman inertia, but the way of Constantinople remained a very important link between the Hungarians and the French government which gave them assistance. On the other hand, the Hungarian diversion was very useful for France during the War of the Spanish Succession.

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A koronázási érme mint legitimációs médium a 18. századi Oroszországban. I. Katalin, Anna, Erzsébet és II. Katalin császárnők koronázási érméinek ikonográfiai vizsgálata

Author(s): Endre Sashalmi / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2015

An important feature of 18th-century Russian History was the advent of female rule, after the death of Peter the Great in 1725. Beginning from the reign of Empress Anne (1730–1740) female figures became prominent in the coronation medals of the empresses which could not be accidental: they clearly served, in my view, to legitimize the given woman on the throne. This phenomenon marked an important shift in the gender of the iconography of power. The 17th-century “Christo-centric”, i.e. male-gendered iconography had to be replaced with a new, female-gendered iconography corresponding to reality. Neutral (in the sense of gender) visual representations of divine right, namely through rays radiating from a cloud or a triangle (with or without the all-seeing eye) of course remained crucial. At the same time, divine will had to be personified in a way that made possible to associate it with the gender of the reigning monarch. This task was accomplished mostly by the female allegorical representation of Divine Providence.

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A Lengyel–Litván Unió kapcsolatai a Szafavida Birodalommal és az ecsmiadzini katholikoszátussal

Author(s): Kornél Nagy / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2020

Stosunki dawnej Rzeczypospolitej z Persją Safawidów i katolikosatem w Eczmiadzynie w świetle dokumentów archiwalnych. The Relations of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth with Safavid Iran and the Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin in the Light of Archival Documents. Red./Eds.: Jaśkowski, Stanisław – Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz – Mnatsakanyan, Piruz. Warszawa, Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych – Naczelna Dyrekcja Archiwów Państwowych, 2017. 398 p.

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A Magyar Hírmondó szerepe Benkő József literatúratörténet-írói tevékenységében

Author(s): Adél Csata / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: VII/2020

The study presents the correspondent activity of József Benkő that he carried out in the journal Magyar Hírmondó. We examined the topic of his writings in the magazine and tried to show whether or not these publications were related to his activity as a literary historian. In addition to this, we tried to show whether his writings contributed to the development of the concept of publishing a new volume that would have included information on the cultural life of Transylvania. The results of our research show clearly that half of the published writings present the careers of scientists, the history of scientific institutions, the detail of research trips, etc., so these publications fall within the conception of literary history. Benkő, although he could not write a new volume, through the character and theme of these articles he developed his chapter De re literaria in Transsilvania of his work published in 1778.

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A magyar nacionalizmus gyökerei: nemzeti diskurzusok a 18. század végén

Author(s): Gábor Almási,Lav Šubarić / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 2/2020

This paper examines the origins of Hungarian nationalism in the Kingdom of Hungary. Its main thesis is that nationalism (as a political discourse and not as a mass movement) emerged in Hungary more suddenly, more radically and earlier than previously thought. We argue that the power of nationalism in shaping culture, society, politics and identity may best be understood through an analysis of the conceptual arsenal, the rhetorical strategies and dynamics of the new discourse of nation and nationhood, which suddenly emerged in the early 1790s. We claim that it is the sudden appeal of these political discourses that needs to be explained first: how could they successfully overwrite earlier discourses? How did they gain social, political, and cultural legitimacy? How did they relate to the Enlightenment? To provide answers to these questions, we first point out the ambiguity and fluidity of new concepts, such as nation, language, fatherland, patriot, foreigner etc. These new, key concepts in political discourse provided innovative and independent sources of political legitimation. They served as keystones, on the basis of which the framework of politics could be rewritten. They made an easy entry into politics also because they were rooted in more familiar, earlier political discourses. However, for the success of nationalism as a political paradigm (which remained relatively unchanged in the coming century), the new discourses of nation also needed to make attractive ideological propositions and project positive visions of the future. The main body of the paper shows how these propositions, all aiming fundamentally at public happiness, targeted at a variety of audiences.

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A Magyar Református Énekeskönyv új dicséretanyagának általános elemzése

Author(s): Otília Valéria Orosz / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 6/2020

The congregations of the Reformed Church District of Királyhágómellék and Transylvania replaced the older hymnbooks twenty years ago. The replacement of 1921 hymnbook, previously used in the Partium region, and of the 1923 hymnbook used in Transylvania, opened a new chapter in the church singing practice. When comparing the origin and style layer of the songs in the two hymnbooks, the difference is striking, especially with respect to the 19th century melodies and the amount of 18–19th century ad notam songs in the 1921 hymnbook. From a structural point of view, the Hungarian Reformed Hymnbook focuses mostly on the hymns of the Reformation era and the German choral melodies, quantitatively closely followed by the Anglo-Saxon and Romantic hymns. The other valuable medieval, baroque and 20th century hymns are present in a merely symbolic proportion. During a hymnbook revision, it is not enough to drop rarely used or undervalued hymns. Rather, hymns with weakened influence need to be replaced. This is how we should approach our new hymnbook published nearly a quarter of a century ago. Its substantially new material should be regarded as a “profit” that needs to be discovered repeatedly and adopted in our worship services.

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A Measurement-Theoretic View on the Early Evolution of the Ordering of Chemical Elements

Author(s): Ave Mets / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2020

Mets (2019) analyses the periodic system of chemical elements notably from the perspective of, inter alia, Patrick Suppes’ and Joseph Zinnes’ measurement theory (1962), taking for granted its applicability particularly to atomic weight and atomic number—the “primary” ordering principles. Here the applicability of the said theory to these aspects of the periodic table is critically scrutinised from its pre-evolution, or quantification of chemistry and inter-element relations at the end of the 18th century, to some stages of the evolution—briefly the contemporary one, and certain nineteenthcentury versions of the table. It is shown that measurement-theoretic terms, particularly scale types, are not applicable in this subject matter without complications. In addition, there emerges a development towards more substantial exactitude.

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A memoár mint útleírás. A tokaj-hegyaljai bor útja Dov Ber Birkenthal bolehovi zsidó kereskedő visszaemlékezései alapján

Author(s): Krisztina Kurdi / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2019

A Hebrew manuscript was found in the Library of Jews’ College, London in 1912, written by Jewish wine merchant Dov Ber Birkenthal (1723-1805) from the region of Galicia, which was at first part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, then belonged to the Habsburg Empire. The manuscript was translated by Mark Vishnitzer in 1922, and it was published in English under the title The Memoirs of Ber of Bolechow. Due to his secular education and language skills Birkenthal was an important figure in the events that shaped the lives of the Jewish people in the era, and he participated in the theological debates between the talmudists and the frankists as an interpreter. This was the source of his other work, Divrei Binah. As a wine merchant he travelled the 18th century North-eastern Hungary, especially the Tokaj-Hegyalja region, and during the last decade of his life he wrote a memoir recording his experiences. This work provides valuable information about the Jewish community in 18th century Poland, as well as the Jewish-Christian relationship. The author also retells the political crisis and first partition of Poland. Through his memories we learn about the 18th century Tokaj-Hegyalja wine trade, and we can follow the routes of wine transportation. The social network of the Bolechow merchant is also clearly identifiable, even though it was probably even more extensive then what we see in the memoir. We can also read about the business relations of merchants from different ethnic backgrounds, the financial circumstances of the time, as well as a method of wine fraud.

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A nagymihályi Sztáray grófi család és a Sztáray-uradalom felemelkedése a 18. században

Author(s): Peter Kónya / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: VIII/2021

The Family of the Sztáray Counts of Nagymihály (Michalovce) and the Rise of the Sztáray Demesne in the 18th centuryaristocracy; 18th century; Sztáray family; the demesne of Nagymihály; demesne organizationThe study discusses the formation and evolution of the Sztáray family from Upper Hungary and its branches from the 14th to the end of the 17th centuries. The Pongrácz, Eödönffy and Sztáray families were all branches of the same Nagymihályi family. Initially, the members of the Pongrácz family owned the most important lands, that is Nagymihály and dozens of settlements in Ung and Zemplén counties. The most significant changes on the territory of the domain of Nagymihály occurred after 1711. During Rákóczi’s war of independence both the citizens of Nagymihály market town and the nobility stood alongside the prince, supporting him in his battles. Following the war, however, certain members of the nobility – like László Pongrácz, or the members of the Szirmay family – didn’t manage to reinforce their former social positions. As a consequence, during the 1720s and 1730s Imre Sztáray not only managed to take most of the lands of the domain out of the hands of the former owners, the Pongrácz family, but slowly and steadily superseded even the Szirmays from their pledged lands. Imre Sztáray, who in 1743 became a baron, then in 1749 a count, took the pledged lands in his possession, thus, by the 1750s the Sztáray family became the sole proprietor of the domain of Nagymihály. The son of Imre Sztáray, Mihály jr. continued the expansion of the domain during the second half of the 18th century. The count developed and modernized the estate, its agricultural equipment, and rebuilt, expanded, and embellished the mansion of Nagymihály, which became a representative baroque noble residence with spacious gardens, parks and summer suites.

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A nemzeti identitás történeti konstrukciójához. A pátria képe II. Rákóczi Ferenc önéletrajzi írásaiban

Author(s): Gábor Tüskés / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 3/2020

This study examines the image of Hungary, with its history, its society and its economy, as Francis II Rákóczi represented them in retrospect in the two autobiographical works, the Confessio peccatoris and the Mémoires, he wrote during his exile in France and then in Turkey. It shows how Rákóczi relates the historical events leading up to the War of Independence of 1703–1711, how he describes the military background and various other aspects of this war. The image of Hungary in both works combines factuality, representation of reality and fiction in different proportions and in different ways. In the Confessio, the main features of the relationship between the three factors are the frequent changes in narrative perspective, the constant fluctuation between fact, fiction, semi-fiction, and the consciously theologized and mytho-religious realignment of the course of life. While Rákóczi records many events and phenomena more or less realistically, he resorts to the means of literary transformation and rhetorical formulation in various ways. He strives to achieve “objectivity” while describing the events of Hungarian history and the contemporary situation in terms of his political and military aspirations, with a need for self-justification. In many places, he alters the facts or gives a partial interpretation of the role of the Habsburgs in Hungary. The Mémoires are the personal testimony of a politico-military experience as well as a partial responsibility assumed for what happened. The work is the expression of political thought, moral behaviour and inner conviction. As for the image of Hungary in the two works, it appears through the various levels of the text, autobiographical level, historical and interpretative level. Factuality and fictionality, just like fiction, semi-fiction and non-fiction, are valid only jointly, in relation to each other.

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A pitaja, a sárkánygyümölcs szerepe a jezsuita missziók idején a Kaliforniai-félszigeten, 1697–1768

Author(s): María del Mar Muñoz González / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2016

The Jesuit missionaries arrived in Lower California in 1697. The missionaries had a specific purpose: to ensure the evangelization of Californian Amerindians, but it should also lead to an expansion of the territories of the Crown as well as to the establishment of the Viceroyalty’s central authorities and the local administration. They met many adversities: climate, terrain and semi-nomadic communities. The Crown wanted the missions to be founded to help the Manila Galleon in its “tornaviaje”. All these provide a framework for the contacts between the Jesuit missionaries, the native communities of the Peninsula and sailors from the Philippines.

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A POLISH SATTELZEIT? NEW CONCEPTS IN THE POLITICAL LANGUAGE AT THE TWILIGHT OF THE POLISH-LITHUANIAN COMMONWEALTH

Author(s): Anna Grześkowiak-Krwawicz / Language(s): English Issue: 122/2020

The political discourse in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth changed deeply in the second half of the eighteenth century. New concepts, terms and notions were integrated into it, some of them drawn from the vocabularies of Western philosophers. The article tries to answer the question what these concepts or notions were, and how their adaptation informed the language itself and the descriptions of the political world and political-system projects formulated in it. Based on the analysis of theoretical treatises as well as writings produced as part of current political debate of the years 1764–92, the author seeks to demonstrate the ways in which the political disputants of King Stanislaus Augustus’s time endeavoured to face the state’s crisis through introducing new words and ideas, and in which the language was adapting to the challenges of the changing socio-political situation. She argues that the concepts which appeared in the last quarter of the century in the Polish political language were fundamental to the description and view of the world – to the extent that a breakthrough in Polish discussion on society and state is identifiable along these lines.

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A Portion of the Rákóczi Poltura Hoard Discovered in Nădăștia de Jos (Hunedoara County) and Associated Discussion of Coin Minting During the Time of Francis II Rákóczi

Author(s): Florin Ciulavu,Ioan Alexandru Bărbat / Language(s): English Issue: 10/2019

The authors present here a portion of a hoard containing 10 poltura coins made during the time of the Rákóczi Uprising, between 1704 and 1706. The coins were part of a discovery made in the area of the Nădăștia de Jos village, Călan town, Hunedoara County under unknown circumstances. As such discoveries are relatively rare, it is important that they be included in the scientific circuit. In addition to their rarity, their significance from a historical and numismatic perspective must be emphasized. As has previously been stated in other studies and articles dedicated to the items minted during this period, although poltura were not high-denomination coins the political context in which they were made and the area of their distribution gives them substantial research value. The discussion presented here also provides context through an exploration of the nuances of coin minting during the time of Francis II Rákóczi.

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A pozsareváci békekötés és a magyarok

Author(s): Sándor Papp / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 4/2018

From the perspective of Hungarian historiography, the Treaty of Passarowitz means the restoration of the territorial integrity of the historical Kingdom of Hungary after almost two centuries. The author of this study aims to examine if there were any possible alternative ways to resolve this conflict other then what became known as the Treaty of Passarowitz, when the war initially broke out in 1716. After the failed uprising (1703–1711), Francis II Rákóczi continued his diplomatic efforts to reclaim the lost Principality of Transylvania. Despite the difficult international situation, he left France for the Ottoman Empire and tried to use the military conflicts between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire to achieve his goals. The study also examines the circumstances of Rákóczi’s invitation to the court of the Sultan, and explains that the first letter of invitation sent to him was a formal political treaty, in which the Sultan gave him the Principality of Transylvania. However, he never received this document, instead he got another letter, but this one only promised his confirmation as prince at a later date. The second half of the study analyzes an unpublished Turkish manuscript from the 18th century, which contains the Turkish exchange of letters regarding the peace negotiations at Passarowitz. In this volume several references to Rákóczi can be found, as well as four documents originating from him and two letters sent to him by the Grand Vizier. Through these documents we can examine the prince’s international relations, and how the Ottoman Porte tried to use Rákóczi to decrease its international isolation.

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A pozsonyi jezsuita kollégium diáklétszám-változásai a 17–18. században

Author(s): Zsolt Kökényesi / Language(s): Hungarian Issue: 02/2018

The Jesuit Gymnasium of Pressburg [Bratislava/Pozsony], founded in 1626, was one of the first members in the Jesuit school network of the Kingdom of Hungary. The catholic Gymnasium in the capital of Hungary soon assumed not only regional but national importance, which was reflected by its catchment area and in the numbers of matriculations. Moreover, in the second third of the 18th century the Jesuit school of Pressburg (with its often more than 700 matriculation numbers a year) became the most attended Hungarian school, surpassing even the Gymnasium of Tyrnau [Trnava/Nagyszombat], which functioned near the only university in the Kingdom of Hungary. The purpose of this paper is to survey the changes in student numbers between 1650 and 1773. The paper approaches the subject from two perspectives: at first, it analysises the complete numbers of matriculations decade by decade, and then the changes in the scales of school grades.

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A Pozsonyi Jogakadémia története (1777-1914)

Author(s): Veronika Keresztes / Language(s): Hungarian

The origins of the Academy in Bratislava date back to 1777, when one of the five royal academies in Hungary was established in Trnava (Hungarian: Nagyszombat) on the basis of the Ratia Educationis. Instruction at the Royal Academy began in November 1777. The Academy was given some of the buildings of the former University of Trnava and former professors of the university were appointed as teachers. The Academy was only active for a very short period of time, already in 1783 it was decided to move it to Bratislava. The Royal Academy was moved to Bratislava (Hungarian: Pozsony) in the spring of 1784 and was located in the former convent of the Poor Clares. Instruction began there as early as 17 May 1784. However, the transportation of the library, archives, classrooms, and the equipment of the Academy's church continued in the following years.The Royal Academy was under the direct supervision of the director general of the Bratislava school district, who often chaired the Academy´s congress. The immediate head of the academy was the director, referred to in sources as the prodirector. From 1777 until 1850, instruction at the Academy was conducted in accordance with the school regulations Ratio Educationis of 1777 and Ratio Educationis of 1806. There were two faculties of philosophy and law. Studies at both lasted two years. Successful completion of the philosophical faculty was a prerequisite for studying at the law faculty. The aim of the royal academies from their foundation in 1777 was not only to prepare students for further university education, but primarily to prepare them for practice—for their work in state, public and local administration, in the judiciary, and in the administration of landed estates.The changes that took place after the revolution of 1848/49, the centralist aspirations of the Viennese court, had a significant impact on education in Hungary. The school reform "Entwurf der Organisation der Gymnasien und Realschulen in Oesterreich" issued in 1849 directly influenced the teaching process in the Hungarian royal academies. It came into force in Hungary in the school year 1850/51. Under this school reform, the study of philosophy in the academies ceased to exist and became part of the extended, 8-year grammar schools. The academies provided education only in the field of law and were renamed Imperial Royal Law Academies. Their operation was regulated by a decree of the Ministry of Culture and Education of 1850. The Imperial Royal Academy of Law in Bratislava was moved in 1850 from the convent of the Poor Clares to the former residence of the Jesuits on Kapitulská Street. The academy was headed by a director. The study of law was conducted from 1850 in two years. In 1855, the study was extended to three years and a fixed study schedule was established.The school year 1850/51 also brought significant personnel changes for the Bratislava Academy of Law. Although German became a compulsory language of instruction at the law academies only in 1855, it had been the preferred language of instruction at the Bratislava Law Academy since the school year 1850/51. However, German caused problems for many students and ultimately contributed to a reduced interest in studying.The changes that took place after the issuance of the October Diploma in 1860 also affected the law academies. The Academy in Bratislava was renamed the Royal Academy of Law in Bratislava. Hungarian became the language of instruction again in the summer semester of the 1860/61 school year. German-speaking teachers were replaced by Hungarian-speaking teachers. Many subjects focusing on Austrian law and Austrian administration were replaced by subjects that were useful for the administration of Hungary. The renewed interest of young people in studying at law academies was due in no small part to the fact that from 1861 the doctorate in law, which could only be obtained at university, was no longer a prerequisite for many professions.In 1874, the study of law in law academies and law lyceums was reformed in accordance with the Regulation of the Ministry of Culture and Education No. 12917. The Law Academy in Bratislava changed its name to the Faculty of Legal and Political Sciences. The study of law was extended to four years. After completing the first two years, students could choose whether they wished to study law or political science first, and from which field they wished to take the state examination. However, even the reform of 1874 did not solve the problems that accompanied the teaching of law in law academies and lyceums. Their disadvantaged position vis-à-vis the universities was reflected in the steady decline in interest in studying in the academies. In Bratislava, from the school year 1875/76, there was also an independent faculty of philosophy alongside the faculty of law and political science, but the low interest in studies caused its dissolution (merger with the faculty of law and political science) as early as 1882. Teachers of the Law Academy, as well as representatives of the city, sought a solution to improve legal education in Bratislava in the establishment of a university, and in the last quarter of the 19th century they took active steps in this matter. However, economic and personnel shortcomings did not favour the establishment of a new university for a long time. The decision to establish a university in Bratislava was taken in 1912. The Elizabethan University was a direct continuation of the activities of the Law Academy in Bratislava. The Academy of Law in Bratislava ceased to exist in the school year 1913/14. The study of law at the Elizabethan University began in the school year 1914/15.The Academy of Law in Bratislava was an important part of the social, cultural, and political life of the city. Its students were actively involved in various religious and secular celebrations, in the 1840s they were part of pro-reform political manifestations, they took part in charity collections and were active in educational and charitable associations.The daily life of the students was regulated by the school laws, which were announced publicly in the presence of all students at the beginning of each semester. The school laws in force at the Bratislava Academy are preserved in sources from 1798. With minor changes, they remained in force until 1850. Violations of school rules were widespread at the Bratislava Academy in the first half of the 19th century, the most frequent offences being neglecting religious services and visiting forbidden places (taverns, taprooms, cafés, theatres...). The students of the Academy often came into conflict with the local population and their disturbances were dealt with by the town council. After 1850, with the decline in the number of students attending the academy and the impact of the strict police regime, student offences were minimised. After 1860, the school laws did not interfere as much in the personal and social life of the students as before 1850. They concentrated only on their behaviour at school and the fulfilment of their school duties. They interfered only to a minimal extent in their personal life and behaviour in their free time—outside the classroom.The Bratislava Academy of Law was one of the most sought after and best attended institutions providing legal education in Hungary for almost the entire period of its existence. Many eminent personalities worked here, many teachers later also worked at universities or held important secular or ecclesiastical ranks.

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