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Kognitívna disonancia je psychologickým javom známym každému človeku: psychologické pnutie, pocit napätia, ktoré vzniká, keď sa dozvieme informáciu, ktorá je v ostrom rozpore s našimi predstavami či svetonázorom.
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The author of this study deals with the reception of animated films by child viewers. She attempts to clarify the process of how animated stories are understood with regard to the cognitive and emotional skills of children of preschool (4–6) and early school age (7–9). She confirms the theoretical propositions of developmental psychology and supplements them with a qualitative testing of selected age groups. The study aims to outline how children think and apply this knowledge in analyzing the process of how they watch animated films, children’s most favourite film genre. The results not only point to the problems of child viewers, but also of films intended for them.
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Those who argue that dispositional explanations are genuine explanations usually construe them as causal explanations. There are several well-known arguments against the causal efficacy of dispositions, but there are as well demonstrations that on some minimal conditions, dispositions could be viewed as causally relevant to the effects which they are taken to explain. Although the latter position is generally tenable, it may be shown that in some important cases it is not a good idea to commit to a causal construal of dispositional explanations. The argument goes as follows: (1) Dispositional explanations are valued for certain specific extra-inferences which they allow us to draw; (2) The causal construal of dispositional explanations can account for some of these extra-inferences only on the assumption that the disposition is a common cause of its manifestations; (3) However, under certain circumstances, the common cause assumption is refuted on theoretical or empirical grounds; Therefore, (4) under certain circumstances, the causal construal of dispositional explanations cannot account for what these explanations are valued for. The latter conclusion is a reason to argue that in some cases at least, the causal construal of dispositional explanations should be avoided.
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In the past, patient safety has attracted attention. However, little of it has been focused on the social skills necessary for paramedics. The aim of this article is to both highlight this deficiency, as well as the importance of examining such social skills which are necessary for crews in the emergency medical services. In this review, we present different terms described in the literature, and also the two most prevalent approaches: a non-technical skills approach and a competency approach. The non-technical skills approach has its origin in aviation. Flin et al. (2003) defined non-technical skills as the cognitive and social skills that complement technical skills, and contribute to safe and efficient task performance. Non-technical skills are divided into three main categories: cognitive (decision-making and situational awareness), personal awareness (coping with fatigue and stress) and social skills (leadership, communication and teamwork). Each category includes basic elements and behavioral markers – examples of effective and non-effective behaviors. The competency approach defines competencies as knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics or as a cluster of two or more these attributes (Marrelli, Tondora, & Hoge, 2005). Each competency is composed of behavioral indicators – specific descriptions of effective behavior (Calhoun et al., 2008). The literature describes three clusters of competencies: 1. cognitive competencies (system thinking and pattern recognition), 2. emotional competencies (self-awareness, self-management, emotional self-awareness, emotional self-control), 3. social competencies (social awareness, relationship management such as empathy and teamwork) (Boyatzis & Boyatzis, 2008). In this article, we discuss the differences and similarities of both approaches and we focus on their critique. Nestel et al. (2011) criticized the term of non-technical skills and recommended using the term human factors because human factors positively define skills or behavior. According to the authors, while the term of non-technical skills is simplistic and inaccurate, human factors stem from a richer academic tradition. The model of non-technical skills can contribute to the development of negative attitudes and devaluation in that these skills cannot be learned, and the spread of attitudes that there are two broad, independent categories. The critique of competency models is based on theoretical ambiguities. Some definitions describe competencies as a combination of knowledge, skills, ability and other characteristics (Campion & Odman, 2011) or as a summary of beliefs, motives, and attitudes needed for successful work (Chen & Naquin, 2006). Another critique is based on the lack of methodological rigour, and according to some authors (Ashworth & Saxton, 2006), the term of competence ignores wider human qualities and focus on the measurement of performance according to predetermined standards. Despite the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches, the urgency of this topic in Slovakia is emphasized by the increasing number of publicized cases of medical failure. While there are general categories of nontechnical skills and competency models for healthcare professionals (such as nurses and doctors), there is a lack of studies which focus on paramedics. According to Glavin and Maran (2003), specific methods cannot always be transferred from one culture to another. It is not possible to take a specific training package and replace the word nurse or physician with the word paramedic. It is necessary to develop a theory of human skills (or competencies) and to identify job-specific skills for the position, and related behavioral markers. Additionally, the knowledge of social skills in emergency medical services is important for preventing errors and dealing with critical situations.
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Research objective: Attention was devoted to a comparison of participants of school bullying in cognitive strategies of emotion regulation. We posed the question, if actors of school bullying used the same or different strategies of cognitive emotion regulation. The participants of bullying were divided into four groups according to their roles in bullying, these were: bullies (victimizers), bullied (victims), defenders (helpers) and non-involved in bullying (non-concerned). It was hypothesized that differences between participants exist in the applying of strategies of emotion regulation. Concretely, it was expected that defenders use different strategies than bullies and victims. We assumed that defenders mainly use adaptive strategies, such as positive refocusing, reappraisal, acceptance and planning. We also expected that bullies and victims are oriented to similar patterns of applying the strategies. These assumptions are based on different levels of emotional competencies. Method: Sample consisted of 489 children (254 boys and 235 girls, aged 12-13). Data were collected in twelve schools (25 classes) in Prague (Praha) and Budweis (České Budějovice), which covered areas of mixed socioeconomic backgrounds. The Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire – short version (CERQ-short) was used to measure cognitive strategies of emotion regulation. CERQ-short has 18 items (Garnefski & Kraaij, 2006). Peer nominations were employed to assess bullying, victimization and defend behavior. We used the modified version of the sociometric technique The Guess Who (Janošová et al., 2016). In this technique with 13 items a student is asked to read descriptive statements and then write down the name of the student who best fits that description. We asked children to nominate those classmates that they thought were bullies and victims. Children also had to nominate those classmates who often helped other children. Data processing consisted of determining the number of nominations for each child. In this way, we found 75 bullies (15.3 %), 45 victims (9.2 %), 108 defenders (22.1 %) and 161 non-involved children (32.9 %). A role was therefore attributed to a total of 389 children; the remaining 100 (20.4%) children did not meet the criteria for any role and were therefore not included in the analysis. Data were analyzed in software SPSS 21.0 for Windows. The descriptive statistics, reliability analysis, correlation analysis and MANOVA were used. Results: Results show that the roles in bullying (Wilks' Lambda=.882, F=1.51, p<.05), gender (Wilks' Lambda=.877, F=4.93, p<.001) and also the interaction of both (bullying and gender) these variables (Wilks' Lambda=.862, F=1.79, p<.01) influence the preferences of different strategies of emotion regulation. In the case of roles in bullying, three significant effects can be observed, namely in positive reappraisal (F=4.27, p<.01), selfblame (F=3.44, p<.05) and refocus on planning (F=2.90, p<.05). Inspection of the means shows that while defenders use all these three strategies more than other groups, victims use self-blame and planning lower than others. The score of bullies was the smallest in positive reappraisal. Boys and girls differ in four strategies. The boys more prefer positive reappraisal (F=4.83, p<.05) and other blame (F=10.54, p<.01), whereas the girls more accentuate two similar strategies; rumination (F=6.23, p<.05) and catastrophizing (F=8.89, p<.01). The interaction of both variables has significant effect in two strategies; acceptance (F=3.78, p<.05) and putting into perspective (F=3.27, p<.05). Girls use acceptance especially as defenders, and the least as victims. Conversely, boys accept mainly as victims and least as defenders. Boys put into perspective first of all as victims, and least as defenders. Girls prefer this routine as bullies and less use it as non-involved. Conclusion: The results indicated that participants of school bullying partly differed in the use of cognitive emotion regulation strategies. In the first hypothesis it was supposed that defenders would differ in reappraisal, planning, and also in acceptation and refocusing. This expectation was partly verified. Defenders indicated more frequent positive reappraisal and refocus on planning in comparison with other groups. It seems that they think about the situations in the classroom and they try to look for the solution to negative events. However, the defenders also scored higher on the scale of self-blame - possibly situations of bullying irritate them and invoke these feelings. It could be supposed that reappraisal and planning are the consequence of a sense of blame. The second hypothesis was formulated as an assumption of a similar pattern of preferences of emotion regulation strategies of victims and bullies. This assumption was essentially verified. Assessment of the answers of victimizers and victims show predominantly similar results. While self-blame is higher for bullies, positive refocusing and putting into perspective are higher for victims. These findings indicate that victims more cognitively elaborate the situations of bullying. Blaming others was more common in victims and attackers than in other participants. The obtained results are similar to the findings of Quintana-Orts et al. (2019). It can be assumed that the use of some strategies of cognitive emotional regulation may act as a protective factor weakening the incidence of bullying. Positive reappraisal can be mentioned in this regard. Others may have a risky effect, such as self-blame. However, further research is needed in this area, as other authors point out (Kowalski et al., 2014 Zych, Ortega-Ruiz, & Del Rey, 2015). In a similar way, the protective effect of empathy or social competence in the context of bullying and cyberbullying and, conversely, the risk of moral attachment or neuroticism was pointed to (van Noorden et al., 2015). Menesini and Salmivalli (2017) pointed out the importance of bystanders. Observers’ responses are crucial to eliminating bullying. Therefore, it makes sense to focus intervention programs on bystanders. Likewise, the results of our research showed that observers in the role of defenders differed from other participants in the situation.
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The aim of the theoretical-practical study is to map the current development of cognitive abilities in children before entering school and at younger school age.
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The Socratic method is included among the constructivist teaching methods due to its potential to identify, verify and revise student preconceptions, eliminate adversariality in the process of acquiring knowledge, and thus reduce misconceptions and monitor the learning process. Based on studies of cognitive sciences, developmental psychology and pedagogy, learning through the Socratic method has a positive effect on higher mental functions, critical and logical thinking, cognitive maturity, ability to organize knowledge, metacognition and monitoring, problem solving and communicative, civic, personal and social competence. On the other hand, the Socratic method in local education can be considered an ancient anomaly. The occurrence of empirical verifications of the effectiveness of the Socratic method is also rare. The present study focuses on a systematic review of the performed efficiency verifications as well as on the extent and nature of the effectiveness of the Socratic method on the student's learning.
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Review of: CLAUDE LÉVI-STRAUSS: Pozerať, počúvať, čítať [Look, Listen, Read] Bratislava: Petrus, 2022, Edícia Idea 7, 208 s.
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In this article, we develop a psychodynamic reflection on the place and functions of psychic envelopes in adolescents using a specific tool, the FAST (Family System Test). The concept of ego-skin developed by Anzieu1‒4 is the origin of a particular functional approach of psychic functioning, which relates to the concepts of group dynamics largely developed by the same author.5 This approach makes it possible to locate “operationally” the dysfunctions of the relation between the subject and its environment, such as their incidences on the individual, family and social economy. With the adolescent subject, these dynamics appear able to bring a clinical intelligibility to us, in particular in terms of childrens’ relationships at school. To this end, the use of a singular projective test such as the F.A.S.T. (Family System Test) brings an innovative perspective with the prospect for psychodynamic application in the field of school refusal and schooling in general. The use of the FAST and the application that we propose allows to jointly carrying out evaluation and brief psychotherapy.
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The ability to infer internal mental states through the behavior is related to the understanding of implicit language statements in interactive situations where the speaker’s intention is public. This study looked at that relationship by answering whether this association persists during aging and after Alzheimer’s. Apply some of the terms of the Theory of mind (Toma) battery and the Oral Language (OLTA) battery designed for the adult. A group of 5 individuals with Alzheimer's disease during the middle stage. The results found that the impact relationship is not limited to the group of individuals below the age of maturity, but continues into old age. it would explain the nature of language and cognitive disorders in understanding metaphors such as folk proverbs and the attribution of mental states either through behavior or through language in intermediate Alzheimer’s patients.
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The aim of this study was to analyze various environmental factors influencing dyslexia to enhance our understanding of its risk factors, including the exposure of mothers of dyslexic children to potential negative developmental influences, perinatal and postnatal developmental characteristics of dyslexic children, genetic predisposition, socioeconomic status, and reading exposure in dyslexic children. Mothers of both dyslexic and non-dyslexic children took part in the study. The home literacy environment and the development of motor skills emerge as significant risk indicators for dyslexia. These findings hold profound implications for public health, emphasizing the critical importance of early childhood in providing children with the best possible educational opportunities.
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In this paper, we propose and defend a theory of concepts. According to Machery (2009), psychologists and philosophers mean different things by ‘concept’. Psychologists mean bodies of knowledge used to categorise and infer; philosophers mean constituent of propositional thought. Machery’s conclusion would drive a wedge between contributions by psychologists and philosophers on concepts. Theories about the former would have no clear role to play in, and cast no light on, the latter, and vice versa. We argue that, on the contrary, ‘concept’ has a single core meaning: a container of stored knowledge pertaining to a single category. This single meaning satisfies both the theories of psychologists and philosophers. The divergence in use of the term ‘concept’ on which Machery focuses arises because words for containers are often used to refer to (a) what is contained by the container and (b) the label of a container. Our account explains what a concept is, and how one might be misled by Machery’s challenge.
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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by difficulties in cognitive, emotional, and behavioural self-regulation. Boys are more frequently diagnosed with ADHD than girls. Due to the lack of research on the specific symptomatology that occurs in girls with ADHD and their everyday experiences, a semi-structured interview was conducted with six mothers of girls with ADHD. The thematic analysis of the transcript generated five main themes: 1. “Invisible” girls with ADHD, symptomatology, and late diagnosis: “The fact that she does not hang from the chandelier and does not run around the class does not mean that she does not have ADHD”; 2. Organisation of everyday family life: “One day is too short for us, time flies too quickly”; 3. Experience of schooling a girl with ADHD: “The whole family dynamic revolves around school”; 4. Attitudes of society, professionals, and systems: “Unfortunately, there is no support for girls with ADHD”; 5. Personal experiences of motherhood: “I sense how much I wore myself out in certain situations of that life path of ours”. The results of our analysis indicate that girls are diagnosed with ADHD much later, even though characteristics symptoms are present and significantly affect their everyday life. Similar to boys with ADHD, the symptoms observed in girls are most pronounced in school-related activities and daily occupations that involve executive functions. There is a lack of systematic and socialsupport for girls with ADHD and their mothers. The mothers who participated in the interviews emphasised the need for more sensitivity and understanding among professionals and the society regarding the fact that ADHD does not occur only in boys and that it is not defined only by hyperactivity.
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Previous studies have found that causal attributions, i.e., inferences people make about causes of an outcome (Hewstone & Fincham, 2001), are related to parents’ adjustment to their children’s illness or developmental disorders, but these results are inconsistent. The present study had two aims: 1) to describe the causes that parents attribute to their child’s developmental language disorder (DLD) and how they rate these causes on the dimensions of locus, personal controllability, and stability, and 2) to examine the relationship between causal attributions for the child’s DLD and parents’ mental health, as well as to determine whether these relationships differ as a function of time since diagnosis. Participants included 319 biological parents (94.2% mothers, mean age M = 39.71 years, SD = 5.09) whose children had been diagnosed with DLD as their primary diagnosis. They completed an online questionnaire consisting of demographic questions, the Revised Causal Dimensions Scale (CDS-II; McAuley et al., 1992), and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The results showed that the parents mostly attributed their child’s DLD to genetic factors, as well as various prenatal and perinatal risk factors. In all categories, participants rated the locus of the cause as external, on average. Screen exposure, as well as inadequate language input and parental reactions were rated as the most personally controllable causes, while genetic factors were considered as the most stable causes. Using structural equation modelling, significant effects of perceived locus and personal controllability of the cause on parents’ negative emotional states were observed only at lower levels of time since the child’s diagnosis: locus had a negative effect and personal controllability had a positive effect on parental emotional states. A positive effect was found for the perceived stability of the cause of the child’s disorder, which was also significant at higher levels of time since the child’s diagnosis. The theoretical and practical implications of the results were discussed.
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Glotodidactics, based on the central role of the student, suggests that teacher select didactic concepts that lead to the improvement of knowledge of the language being studied. Observing students' behaviors enables the acquisition of cognitive competences about study skills, strategies, and features in learning. Today, learners’ independence is given great importance in the teaching process. In order to achieve this objective, the instructor’s contribution is fundamental; the instructor must act to determine and develop, in cooperation with the student, the mechanisms and approaches, such as learning strategies, but also the selection of appropriate tools. The use of the Internet offers various alternatives for the acquisition of new linguistic inputs, respecting the peculiarities and personal strategies in learning. This study analyzes manners and objectives that can be achieved in the acquisition of the Italian language through activities developed on the Internet, matching individual strategies or characteristic features that are applied in learning a foreign language.
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Poremećaji zdravlja mozga - uključujući mentalne poremećaje upotrebe tvari i neurološke poremećaje - doprinose do 15% globalnog zdravstvenog tereta, izjednačavajući ih s kardiovaskularnim bolestima. Procjenjuje se da poremećaji mozga globalnu ekonomiju koštaju 5 bilijuna dolara godišnje, a taj iznos se očekuje da će porasti na 16 bilijuna do 2030. godine. Ipak, u većini zemalja ljudi nemaju pristup učinkovitom promicanju zdravlja mozga, uslugama i podršci.
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Psycholinguistic research on temporal lobe epilepsy has identified deficits in lexical access to stored word knowledge, often showing difficulties with impaired naming, impaired verbal fluency, and slower processing time in semantic category decision tasks. Th is study presents the neuroanatomical correlates of dissociative lexical–semantic impairments in medial temporal lobe epilepsy in both dominant and non– dominant hemispheres. Clinical subjects demonstrated the same accuracy in lexical–semantic processing tasks as healthy participants, but significantly slower lexical–semantic processing compared to the control group. Further analysis showed that a lesion in the medial temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere caused category–specific deficits, while a lesion in the non–dominant temporal lobe did not cause impairments. Th e results suggest that epilepsy of the medial temporal lobe can cause impaired lexical–semantic access, leading to disproportionate damage to certain lexical–semantic categories. Th e confirmed assumptions of this research are consistent with neuroanatomical models that show that hemispheric differences in the epileptic focus can affect the processing of certain lexical–semantic categories, disrupt certain lexical– semantic categories, and influence the reorganization of the language system.
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Intellectual disability is a global insufficiency aimed at the entire personality, structure, organization, intellectual, affective, psychomotor, behavioral-adaptive development, of a hereditary nature or acquired as a result of an organic or functional damage to the central nervous system, which manifests itself from the first years of life, in different degrees of severity in relation to the average level of the population, with direct consequences in terms of socio-professional adaptation, the degree of competence and personal and social autonomy. The plasticity and dynamism of the nervous system give the disabled child enough opportunities for development, but at a slower pace, of course. It has been proven that the functional deficit of some damaged areas of the brain can be compensated by taking over the respective functions by other nerve centers.
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During preadolescence years, the needs of socialization and affiliation are as strong as the needs for self-esteem and social status. The social group provides valuable opportunities for preadolescents to better know themselves, efficient management of their emotions, and control their behavior. However, the challenges in this stage are many. Physical and psychological changes amplify their sense of being different from others, even inadequate. Anxiety in this period is a frequent emotional state, having consequences on multiple levels: cognitive, social, academic. As they interact with others, they improve their perspective on themselves, the world, and life in general.
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A formal model of the physical processes of digestion in a hypothetical cell is developed and discussed as a case study of how the threefold logic of Peircean semiotics works within Rosen’s paradigm of relational ontology. The formal model is used to demonstrate several fundamental differences between a relational description of biological processes and a mechanistic description. The formal model produces a logic of embodied generalization that is mediated and determined by the cell through its interactions with the environment. Specifically, the synchronization of the functions of pattern recognition and semantic attribution results in an open and adaptive learning system that is stabilized by a hermeneutic circle. The relational principles of biosemiotics demonstrated through this case study are applicable to other biological systems, as well as to the relational ontology of systems theory and relativistic quantum theory.
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