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О принципах создания терминологических словарей

Author(s): Sergiusz Griniewicz / Language(s): Russian Issue: 14/2007

Using the already established principles of compiling terminological dictionaries not only helps to evade many drawbacks of the present-day dictionaries, but quite substantially saves time and labour of the author. In modern terminography a number of stages in designing and elaborating of dictionaries are established. Firstly, it is considered expedient to start with determine the main characteristics – parameters of the future dictionary. Such parameters are divided into three main groups. The first group contains parameters of the author’s intension, such as the scope of the dictionary, its purpose, intended users, descriptive or prescriptive function, its size and the principles and criteria of collecting the necessary lexical units. The second group contains parameters of the macro-composition, namely the way of presentation of the entries in the dictionary, the main parts of the dictionary, as well as presentation of word-combinations and homonyms. The last group contains parameters of the micro-composition, that is, the elements of the entry and is subdivided into subgroups of registration, formal, historical, attributive, interpretative, associative, pragmatic and micro-structural parameters. It was found that some of these characteristics may influence the way the other characteristics are realised. Therefore the process of designing dictionary may be based on the consecutive choice of the initial parameters determining the optimal realisation of the following parameters. In this way the optimal presentation of lexical information in various types of dictionaries may be established and used in compiling dictionaries.

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Terminology and social-economic globalization

Author(s): Ágota Fóris / Language(s): English Issue: 14/2007

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the effects of economic and social globalization on linguistic globalization, and the types of implied problems and tasks for terminology. world languages and small languages differ markedly in the reasons universal and special causes of terminological difficulties appear related to languages and new domains. In my study, I examine these effects and illustrate the phenomenon with examples.

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Kai kurie sinoniminių religijos terminų vartosenos atvejai katekizmuose (XVI a. ir XIX a. galas – XX a. pradžia)

Author(s): Aušra Rimkutė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 14/2007

Synonymy is particularly characteristic to the initial stages of development of terminology, when the most suitable term for naming the concept is not yet chosen and a few terms (synonyms) and (or) variants of terms, one of which frequently is a barbarism, are in use at the same time. The objective of this article is to discuss the usage of synonymous terms of religion used next to each other in catechisms from the initial stage of the development of written terminology of religion (16th century) and the period of formation of modern Lithuanian (end of 19th – beginning of 20th centuries). Synonymous terms of religion used in different places in catechisms were not investigated.This article deals with varying synonymy of terms of religion in catechisms from 16th century – Katechismusa Praʃty Szadei, Makʃlas ʃkaitima rаʃta yr gieʃmes del krikʃcʒianiʃtes bei del berneliu iaunu naujey ʃuguldytas (1547) by Martynas Mažvydas, Kathechismas arba mokslas kiekwienam krikszczionii priwatvs. Paraszitas per D. Iakvba Ledesma... Jgulditas i Lięuvio Ląnkiʃʒko ing Lietuwiʃʒka per Kuniga Mikałoiu Daugʃʒa Kánonika ʃʒemaicʒiu (1595) by Mikalojus Daukša and Katekizmas (1598) by Merkelis Petkevičius and from catechisms published at the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th centuries – Mokłsas Rimo Kataliku (1879), Trumpasis Кип. Filochowskio katekizmas (1901) and Katakizmai katalikiszki. Visureikalingiausi dėl vaikų ir žmonių praszcziokų su Lementoriu ir Ministranturu (1903). Synonymous terms of religion (one-word or word combinations) in catechisms are most frequently given in brackets or as a footnote, sometimes they are connected using the conjunction arba or separated by comma. Frequently the synonym of a term is not of Lithuanian origin, for instance, tikėjimas arba viera (faith) MK 28, lokamstva arba godulystė (greediness) MRK 430; atlaidai arba atpuskai (wakes, feast) KK 38, dorybė arba cnata (virtue) KK 40; apeigos (ceremonijos) bažnyčios šv. (church rituals) MRK 24, kančia (mūka) (Calvary) MRK 301, kruvina kančia (mūka) (Calvary) MRK 319, malonė (mylista) Dievo (grace of God) KK 12, nustojimas vilties (nodiejos) (loss for hope) MRK 431, pragaras (pekla) (heli) MRK 144, stebuklas (čiūdas) (miracle) MRK 81 and others. In some cases the non-Lithuanian word is given first – amžina mūka (kančia) (eternal tornment) KK 16, smertis (mirimas) (death) KK 16; desperacija (nusiminimas) (despair) MRK 431, Komunija (arba dalyvavimas) (Communion) TFK 36. The conclusion can be drawn that there were attempts to propose Lithuanian words in catechisms. Synonymy of terms of religion shows that terminology of religion was being created, ordered and normalized not only at the initial stage of its development in the 16th century, but also at the end of 19th and the beginning of 20th centuries as well.

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Классификации терминосистем

Author(s): Vladimir Leitchik / Language(s): Russian Issue: 15/2008

Developing the ideas in the article by B. N. Golovin “Types of Terminological Systems and the Basis for their Distinguishing” (1981) and applying modern concepts of Terminology Science, in this article the four main classifications of terminological systems are suggested: cognitive, semantic, linguistic and normative.

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Variantiniai statybos liaudies terminai Lietuvių kalbos žodyne

Author(s): Robertas Stunžinas / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

This article deals with variant folk terms of construction in the electronic version of Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of Lithuanian) (Vilnius, 2005). It was observed that the majority of variants are variants of pronunciation – accentuation variants and phonetics variants. The group of variants of accentuation mainly consists of variants where the accent is placed differently, for instance, dúonkepis – duonkepỹs (bread stove). Variants with the same place of accent, but with a different intonation are noticeably rarer, for instance, añtpamatis – ántpamatis (rise around foundations).A large part of accentuation variants are variants with normative terms, for instance, gárvilka – garvilkà (steam duct). Variants of non-normative terms are variants of the modern language words or terms not used in modern language, for instance, ãpušė – apuš (asp). A significant proportion of variants are barbarisms and hybrids, for instance, ãkselis – akselỹs (chopped straw).The group of phonetic variants mainly consists of terms concordant to norms of modern Lithuanian and variants with quantitative and qualitative differences of vowels, for instance, kljus – klỹjus (glue).The group of morphological variants consists of terms with the same root and meaning, but with differences in inflectional and derivational affixes and a variety of morphological categories. In this group terms with differences in gender (palubỹs – palub) (place under a ceiling) prevail, terms with differences in number (drobỹnos – drobynà) (ladder) are rather rare.In the group of variant terms with different inflectional affixes the majority of terms have inflexional endings -ė and -(i)a (priemen – priemenià) (entrance hall) as well as -as and -is (sienójas – sienójis) (log). In the group of derivational variants the majority of terms are derivates with prefixes prie-, prieš- and už- and their dialectal variants, for instance, (pregonkis – prýgonkis (porch), preškaktis – prýškaktis (stove front), užùgardė – ažùgardė (mow)) and derivates with the suffix -ininkas and its variants (mrininkas – mūrinykas) (bricklayer).

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Keletas atgaivintų Lauryno Ivinskio augalų vardų

Author(s): Albina Auksoriūtė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 15/2008

Since 2002 the Terminology Sub-commission of the State Commission of the Lithuanian language has together with botanists been discussing and agreeing on Lithuanian names to give to plants which have previously not been named in Lithuanian. The majority of such plants are newly introduced to Lithuania. It was noted that some of them were already named by Laurynas Ivinskis in one of his most important scientific works Prigimtūmenė (Nature); therefore the decision was taken where possible not to create new names, but to adopt names proposed by Laurynas Ivinskis. This article analyses 58 names of genera of plants, taken from Prigimtūmenė by Laurynas Ivinskis.Less than half of the names of genera of plants created by Laurynas Ivinskis are neologisms with clear motivation, for instance alksnotis (Clethra), grėsvis (Kalmia), mėlūnis (Dianella), smuikainis (Citharexylum), sulpėtras (Calyptrocalyx), širmonis (Aletris), uogminys (Uvularia), viršūklis (Terminalia), vytmenys (Abelia), žibėtras (Aeschynomene) and more than one third of neologisms have unclear word formation and motivation, for instance duršvas (Cotyledon), eikras (Tibouchina), elkras (Umbilicus), jostras (Plumeria), kolūnis (Petrea), labūstras (Cabomba), liesmuo (Onosma), nuolaisis (Aphyllanthes), salksnas (Cornutia), sanūtras (Guarea), spingras (Sesuvium), spūglas (Pernettya), sūblas (Exacum), sumbras (Elaeodendron), ūgras (Comptonia), vaiklas (Glaucium).It is possible to trace the word formation pattern of one sixth of the names created by Laurynas Ivinskis, though their motivation is unclear, for instance dirktas (Amsonia), gairuvas (Cantua), imšas (Conospermum), mėklainis (Mimusops), plienumas (Narthecium), raivė (Pachira), ringotis (Canella), skaburas (Hippocrepis), skerstenis (Cheilanthes).Little by little, neologisms in Prigimtūmenė (Nature) are being revived and put into use; thereby the effort of Laurynas Ivinskis to create Lithuanian names of plants was not made in vain.

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The seven pillars of terminology

Author(s): Heribert Picht / Language(s): English Issue: 16/2009

Pirmasis šio straipsnio tikslas – apžvelgti pagrindines žinijos sritis, kurias apima terminologija kaip teorinė ir taikomoji mokslinė disciplina. Nagrinėjamos sąvokos ir objektai, sąvokų ir objektų vaizdavimo formos, sąvokų tvarkymas ir klasifikavimas, terminologijos darbo metodologija, terminografija, terminologijos mokymas ir plati terminologijos taikymo sritis. Antrasis, dar svarbesnis straipsnio tikslas – išryškinti šių sričių ryšius, sąveiką ir tarpusavio priklausomybę.

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Pirmojo lietuviško aritmetikos uždavinyno terminai

Author(s): Diana Šilobritaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 16/2009

Uźduotinas, tai ira Rankius uźduocziu Aritmetikos arba Rokundos mokslo (Exercise book, or a selection of tasks of arithmetic or of the science of calculation) by Jonas Spudulis published in 1885 is the first printed Lithuanian exercise book of arithmetic. The book in 80 pages has three chapters, a list of solutions to the tasks (Atsakai), a multiplication table (Lentelē (tobliczia) dauginimo), an appendix which includes names of various measures and a small glossary of terms Nekurie nepriprasti žodžiai (Some unusual words).This article deals with over 200 general terms, interdisciplinary terms and terms of mathematics used in Uźduotinas.Spudulis tried to use Lithuanian vocabulary in Uźduotinas. A characteristic feature of this exercise book is the large number of one-word and complex terms which are of the Lithuanian origin. Foreign origin terms in this book most frequently are used to name measures.The biggest group of terms researched are one-word terms (64,5% of all terms). 60,5% of them are words of Lithuanian origin, 36,4% – non-Lithuanian origin and 3,1% – hybrids.Complex terms in two and three words make up about one third of terms researched. The subordinate components of these terms (adjectives and participles) are indefinite, but occasionally definite forms were used to name specific concepts.Synonymy and variability are not characteristic to Uźduotinas. There is a comparatively small number of synonymous one-word and complex terms. Only a few cases of phonetic or orthographical variants were found.The majority of terms researched were included in Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of Lithuanian), nonetheless some terms (or their meanings) have not been recorded.

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Terminology and language policy (towards establishing rudiments of linguopolitology)

Author(s): Sergiusz Griniewicz / Language(s): English Issue: 17/2010

Straipsnyje nagrinėjami besiformuojančios plačios mokslo srities, kurią siūloma vadinti lingvopolitologija, terminologiniai aspektai. Bandoma atskleisti ir trumpai panagrinėti naujojo mokslo sandarą ir pagrindinių jos sričių turinį. Pažymima, kad šiuo metu nėra pagrindo kalbėti apie įsisąmonintą ir planingą požiūrį į kalbų plėtros klausimus, nors būtinybė atsižvelgti į terminologinius kalbos politikos aspektus yra akivaizdi. Pasitaiko atvejų, kai nacionalinė kalbos politika būna nepakankamai apgalvota. Vis dėlto sukaupta terminologinių tyrimų ir praktinio terminologijos darbo patirtis leidžia formuluoti tam tikrus principus ir konkrečius būdus, kuriais būtų galima skatinti kalbos plėtrą ir kuriuos būtų galima įgyvendinti tvarkant ir plėtojant specialiąją kalbos leksiką.

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Sudurtinių lietuviškų ir latviškų augalų genčių vardų darybos ypatumai

Author(s): Solvita Labanauskienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 17/2010

Three volume publication Flora of the Baltic Countries (1993–2003), published in Tartu, describes plants, growing in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia – cryptogams and phanerogams (excluding the moss). This article aims to explore compound plant genera names in Lithuanian and Latvian languages according to their word formation type, to compare Lithuanian and Latvian compounds and to determine their common traits and differences. The study includes 118 Lithuanian and 209 Latvian compound plant genera names as the object of research.All compound words, except one Latvian compound word deviņvīruspēks, are composed of two components. There are six types of compound plant genera names in Lithuanian and Latvian languages, in accordance with the part of speech of their first and second component: 1.) compound words with substantive components, 2) compound words with adjective and noun, 3) compound words with noun and adjective, 4) compound words with numeral and noun, 5) compound words with adverb and noun, 6) compound words with noun and verb.Compound words with two substantive components constitute the largest group of plant genera names in Lithuanian and Latvian languages. Plant genera names of this type in Lithuanian and Latvian languages often have the second common component – Lith. žolė and Latv. zāle (grass).Compound words that consist of the first adjectival component and the second substantive component constitute the second largest group of compounds. Lithuanian and Latvian compounds of this type don’t have many similarities. First component quite often means colour: Lith. baltas (white), juodas (black), žilas (grey, white), Latv. balts (white), melns (black), brūns (brown), zaļš (green), zils (blue), sārts (scarlet).Most word formation processes are very similar in both languages, where compound is made up of two nouns. The first component of compound in Lithuanian and Latvian which is found in a few compounds usually contains the name of an animal (Lith. katė – Latv. kaķis (cat), Lith. šuo – Latv. suns (dog), Lith. pelė – Latv. pele (mouse), Lith. ožka – Latv. kaza (goat), Lith. varna – Latv. vārna (crow), etc.). Compound words that contain an adjective and a noun are particularly characteristic for Latvian plant genera names.Lithuanian and Latvian plant names formed from a numeral and noun are rare.Adverb-noun compounds are comparatively rare in Lithuanian botany nomenclature. Compound words composed of a noun and adjective and noun-verb compounds are untypical for plant genera names in Latvian language.Research into plant genera names in Flora of the Baltic Countries leads to the conclusion that compounding is less productive word-formation strategy in Lithuanian botany nomenclature than in Latvian and it corresponds to the tendencies of term formation in both Lithuanian and Latvian languages.

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Mintys apie didelį kalbininką ir terminologą Joną Jablonskį 150-tų gimimo metinių proga

Author(s): Stasys Keinys / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 17/2010

The paper provides an overview of contribution the of great Lithuanian linguist professor Jonas Jablonskis (1860–1930) to the development, normalization and consolidation of modern standard Lithuanian; to the increase in its role and expansion of its functions; and to the development of Lithuanian terminology almost from the start of the National rebirth movement at the end of 19th century. He carried out his work under very difficult conditions of tsarist persecution, the ban on Lithuanian press in Latin alphabet (until 1904), Polonization and Russification of the country and finally in the independent state of Lithuania re-established in 1918. During nearly five decades of intensive activity standard Lithuanian reached the period of its maturity. The paper also reveals the theoretical principles of language normalization as well as creation and development of terminology followed by Jablonskis.Jablonskis’ role in the development of standard Lithuanian was so great that in his own lifetime he was called the father of standard Lithuanian.

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M. Reinio psichologijos terminų ir jų dėmenų daryba

Author(s): Rita Katelytė,Stasys Keinys / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 17/2010

The first three decades of the 20th century was a period of rapid development of contemporary Lithuanian terminology of various fields of science and technology. In 1921 Lithuanian scientific society published Psichologijos vadovėlis (Psychology textbook) which was a free translation of Georgij Chelpanov’s Учебник психологии performed by professor Mečislovas Reinys (1884–1953). This paper analyses the word formation of substantival one-word terms as well as nouns and other parts of speech which comprise components of complex terms used in this textbook.There were 390 words researched, 91% of them are formations. The majority of formations (73.6%) are nouns. Other parts of speech are less common – adjectives comprise 20.7%, verbs (participles) – 5.4% and adverbs – 0.3%. Cases of word formation of terms with suffixes, endings and prefixes as well as compounds and terms of mixed formation (with prefixes and suffixes at the same time) are researched in detail.It was established that the majority of formations researched (about 88%) are purely Lithuanian and about 12% are hybrids. Nearly all hybrids are derivates made from international words with Lithuanian suffixes. Very many terms of psychology and their components have an abstract meaning – 90% of nouns made with suffixes and endings are substantial or verbal abstracts. On the whole, the word formation of the one-word terms and components of complex terms researched has not changed much in 90 years.

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Terminological methods in the history of terminology science

Author(s): Siergiej Grinev-Griniewicz / Language(s): English Issue: 18/2011

Straipsnyje specialiosios leksikos tyrimo ir tvarkybos metodų raidos požiūriu aptariama terminologijos mokslo istorija. Pažymima, kad plėtojantis terminologijos mokslui įvairiais jo raidos etapais buvo taikomi ir tobulinami tam tikri metodai – sisteminis, tipologinis, semiotinis, reversinis, diachroninis ir antropologinis. Tai leidžia terminologijos tyrinėjimų istoriją apžvelgti kaip terminologijos metodologijos raida.

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Terminologijos komisijos (1921–1926) veiklos apžvalga

Author(s): Albina Auksoriūtė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 18/2011

After the re-establishment of Lithuanian independence in 1918, the publication of Lithuanian school text-books was started, Lithuanian terminology of various fields began to develop and the first lists of terms were drawn up, although terminology creation and ordering was performed on the initiative of individuals.As the need for the Lithuanian terminology grew it became necessary to create terms and to perform terminology work in an organized way. Thus, on 14 March 1921 the Terminologijos Komisija (Terminology Commission) was established at the Ministry of Education. The members were famous specialists of linguistics and other fields as well as public figures, for instance J. Jablonskis, K. Būga, A. Dambrauskas, Pr. Dovydaitis, Pr. Mašiotas, A. Smetona, J. Tumas-Vaižgantas, A. Varnas, A. Vireliūnas, V. Požela. Terminology Commission discussed and approved many necessary terms of law, economics, transport and communications, surgery and veterinary science, philosophy and theology, physics, geodesy, mathematics, natural sciences, agriculture and other fields. Terms approved by Terminology Commission were published in the press. Some of them were published as a dictionary Įvardai, arba terminai, priimti Terminologijos komisijos (Terms approved by the Terminology Commission) in 1924.Terminology Commission discussed not only terms, but also names of cities, countries and their inhabitants, rivers, mountains, islands and other geographical names, approved Lithuanian names of Klaipėda region and street names of some towns in Lithuania. It was reorganized in 1925 and carried out its work until the middle of 1926.Terminology Commission was the first terminology institution established in Lithuania on the initiative of the state. It signifies the start of organized terminology ordering. There were various disagreements among its members, changes in its makeup and at times activities were disturbed by the puristic attitudes of some members; but despite that Terminology Commission had a significant influence on the development of Lithuanian terminology. During the five years of its activities Terminology Commission discussed, approved and published quite a lot of terms and nomenclative names important to the life of the state. Majority of these terms were established and still are being used today.

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Petro Vileišio aritmetikos vadovėlio Keturi svarbiausiejie veikalai aritmētikos terminai

Author(s): Diana Šilobritaitė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 18/2011

Petras Vileišis was a famous Lithuanian public figure who made a significant contribution to the creation of Lithuanian terminology of various fields, including mathematics. His textbook Keturi svarbiausiejie veikalai aritmētikos (Four main arithmetical operations) (1886) is important for the history of terminology, because it was one of the first published textbook of arithmetics and its author had to create some new terms. It is also important that in this textbook Vileišis presented definitions of some terms of mathematics.The characteristic feature of this textbook is the abundance of Lithuanian terms. One-word terms of the Lithuanian origin, which are the main element of complex terms, make up 75.8 % of all terms found. The majority of these terms are no longer used. Only three terms took root in the usage. Terms of non-Lithuanian origin make up 21 %, hybrid terms – 3.2 %.There are only two one-word terms which are not formations – labas (result) and spůgas (multiplication sign). The absolute majority (95.9 %) of one-word terms are formations (suffixal or ending derivates and one compound). Suffixal derivates are most common. Among them the largest group is derivates with the suffix -imas (-ymas), other suffixes -umas, -ybė, -uotis, -tis, -tojas, -alas, -ana, -ėjas, -yklė, -lė, -tinė and -tinis are not so frequent. Ending derivates are made with endings -is (-ys), -ė and -(i)us.Complex terms used in Vileišis’ textbook make up 57.8 % of all terms found. They are two- and three-word terms, which can be classified into word-combinations with attributes in concord and with attributes not in concord.The majority of researched terms can be found in Lietuvių kalbos žodynas (Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language), but there were some terms or their meanings which were not included, for instance stalveikslis (multiplication table), padaugintinis (multiplicand), labas (result of operation).

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Over- and out- as negatively-oriented markers

Author(s): Catherine Moreau / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2017

In this paper, I address the issue of negation through two markers, verbal prefixes over- and out- which do not have an intrinsic negative meaning but which act as negatively-oriented markers. In the utterer-centered framework used here, these markers are seen as a means of assessing a value in relation to a subjective boundary. The different semantic stages at stake are defined as occurring in a notional domain. Negation is thus considered as the expression of an alteration which results from going beyond normal limits to such an extent as to possibly exit the domain. Overbook and overdo, for in-stance, imply excess, hence “not having the expected value”. The markers considered here are studied in context and taken from a large corpus of oral and written English.

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Genitive of negation in the Croatian language

Author(s): Diana Stolac / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2017

A direct object in Croatian is an object in the accusative case or an object in the genitive case which is interchangeable with the accusative. There are two types of direct object in the genitive case – the partitive genitive and the genitive of negation (Slavic genitive). The conditions that have to be met for the genitive of negation to be used are that the predicate verb has to be transitive, and that the sentence has to be negative. Therefore, the genitive of negation can only be realized in negative sentences in which it is synonymous with the accusative, while in the positive sentences the direct object is exclusively in the accusative case.The literature on the genitive of negation primarily deals with its origin and original meanings – partitive, ablative (Meillet, 1897), its position in the Indo-European noun case system (Heinz 1965), and its status in particular Slavic languages (Trávníček 1938; Breznik 1943; Hausenblas 1958; Harrer-Pisar-kowa 1959; Gortan-Premk 1962; Heinz 1965; Hlavsa 1975; for Croatian: Feleszko 1970; Menac 1979; Vince-Marinac 1992; Stolac 1993; Stolac – Horvat-Vlastelić 2004; for Croatian-English relations see: Zovko Dinković 2013). This morphosyntactic fact is a feature of Slavic languages (which is why it is also called the Slavic genitive) in which it has different qualitative characteristics (stylistically marked/unmarked, interchangeable with the accusative with/without a difference in meaning, non-interchangeable with the accusative). There are no equivalent syntactic structures outside the Slavic language family.This paper comments on the differences between the Croatian and English syntax which make direct translation of the genitive of negation impossible and require the translator to employ translation strategies that enable him or her to preserve all of its features (amplified negation, stressed negation, stylistic markedness). Since the genitive of negation is more frequent in older Croatian texts, and especially in the contemporary spoken discourse, it is also necessary to approach it from the diachronic perspective. The corpus for this segment of this study consists of plays by the Kajkavian comediographer Tituš Brezovački (1757–1805). Apart from translation, this is also an issue in teaching Croatian as a foreign language, as the change of cases between the positive and negative sentence confuses the users of Croatian as a foreign language. The relationship between the following examples is discussed: Vidim budućnost./Ne vidim budućnost. (neutral affect)/Ne vidim budućnosti. (marked affect), and their possible translations: I don't see the future./I see no future.

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Semantics of the verb shall in legal discourse

Author(s): Olga Aleksandrovna Krapivkina / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2017

The article deals with the modal verb shall in English legal discourse. The analysis of theoretical and factual data shows that shall performs a number of semantic functions in legal texts that violate the main drafting requirements – clarity, precision, lack of ambiguity of legal utterances. Lexical units and grammatical constructions with ambiguous meanings obscure legal provisions for lay persons, so their use goes against one of the main principles of the rule of law – equitable access to legal information for all citizens, not only for legal experts. Furthermore, the ambiguity of linguistic units involves considerable difficulties for legal translators as they need to have deep legal knowledge in order to interpret unclear intentions of legislators. The article examines three approaches developed in law-making practice to the use of shall in legal documents: restricting shall to one sense, avoidance of shall, and keeping the verb with all its existing meanings. The analysis showed that in legal discourse shall may be replaced by other modal verbs – may, must, should, be to with less ambiguous meanings.

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Ekonomikos forumuose vartojamos ekonomikos terminijos struktūrine ir semantine analize

Author(s): Elena Logunova / Language(s): English Issue: 23/2016

The article is devoted to structural and semantic analysis of economic terminology in computer forums on economy. It reflects the types of terms of economic forums and the main structural ways of their nomination. The author also analyses the structure of forums and the main lexical units and computer signs of economic discourse. The computer discourse represents the communication which is understood as interaction of participants of communication who exchange their opinions, different information and emotions by means of computer technologies and the Internet.

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Svetimžodžio brendas reikšmės, vediniai, atitikmenys

Author(s): Rasuolė Vladarskienė / Language(s): Lithuanian Issue: 23/2016

The loan-word brendas (brand) originating from English is not included in dictionaries either of Modern Lithuanian or international words. It is possible to find its definitions only in databases on the internet or in internet vocabulary. There are no clear recommendations about the usage of this loan-word, so it seems that the competition between brendas and its Lithuanian equivalents is being allowed to take its natural course. As its usage shows, the most precise explanation of the meanings of this word is given in the internet vocabulary Jaunimo žodynas. The loan-word brendas, its derivatives and related words are widely used in the specific language and spoken language of specialists and in the environment of university studies. It can be found in descriptions of subjects of teaching and lectures as well as in written works of students, although in the edited language of science it is rare. In standardized language (as well as in the language of official documents) loan-words are not used, they are substituted with Lithuanian equivalents.

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