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The high degree of a relationship between the Slavic languages raises the issue about the criteria by which they distinguish between them. Through different mechanisms of combinativeness and a lexicalsemantic distribution of the common vocabulary the common by its origin lexis has formed various Slavic languages. The collocations, or the syntagmatic organization of words, act as a sign of differentiality between the Slavic languages and they contain a number of specific features. In certain situations the characteristics of the collocation are linked with sociolinguistic processes of divergence of literary languages. The contemporary linguistic situation in South Slavic / Balkan Slavic area implement a certain revision of theoretical formulations and orientation to new methodological and applied perspectives.
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The paper deals with some of the boundaries of the Compound Verbal Predicates in Bulgarian language whose first component is expressed by an impersonal verb (the second component can be expressed either by a form of a personal verb, or by a form of an impersonal verb or a personal verb with an impersonal usage). The starting point from which we proceed is that any combination consisting of two verb forms (linked together by the linguistic element да in Bulgarian), the first of which is a form of an impersonal verb, functions in the sentence as a Compound Verbal Predicate in the Bulgarian language. To establish such a Predicate, it is essential to prove that its first component is expressed by a form of an impersonal verb.
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The text discusses the first application of the Transformational-Generative Grammar (TGG) to Bulgarian language in a 1963 paper by Hilmar Walter. The role of this paper is outlined within the general reception process of TGG from American into Bulgarian linguistic practice by analyzing the factors determining the indirect reception via German mediation. In addition, some main reception features of H. Walter’s paper have been considered, that have played a leading role in Bulgarian reception of generative grammar in general. Special emphasis is laid on the repercussion of the pioneering paper in Bulgarian linguistic circles.
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This article critically reviews the ways in which the grammatical relation between the units of appositional constructions have been interpreted and conceptualized in Russian linguistics. The paper considers four distinct perspectives, each of which represents a principal claim: 1) Theories based on the traditional view of the grammatical relation; i.e., the appositive and the head are in a hypotactic relationship. 2) Theories proposingthat the grammatical relation is coordination. 3) Theories stating that the grammatical relation is neither coordination nor subordination. 4) Theories advancing the view that the grammatical relation has a hybrid nature; i.e., it is a symbiosis of distinctive features both of coordination and subordination. The second part of the paper explores the third and the fourth group of theories.
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The paper examines the system of future tenses in Bulgarian as part of the morphosyntactic specificities of the Balkansprachbund. A hypothesis is presented that there exists a Balkan center of future tenses – from Byzantine and Modern Greek to Bulgarian (including Macedonian), Serbian and Croatian, up to Slovene, where the future tense is formed by the verb to be. However, Bulgarian has indeed the largest number of future tense paradigms. Some verb forms in contemporary Bulgarian originate from Old Bulgarian. This is valid for both – synthetic and analytic forms. At the same time, some verb forms result from an influence by other Balkan languages, e.g. the adstrat languages like Balkan Romance or Balkan Greek, and a superstrat language like Turkish.
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The paper aims at presenting the history of the Bulgarian linguistic thought on the status of word groups consisting of an appositive and a nominal it modifies. The research focus is laid on the multitude of ways authors interpret both grammatical relations between the components of the analysed word groups and the syntactic connections by means of which such relations are realized. While in the past the main problem had to do with mixing of detached secondary parts and the apposition, at present studies focus on the difficulty of identifying the syntactic functions of the components in the appositive word group. The main reason for such an ambivalent identification is that sentence components, which differ both semantically and morphologically, are defined as appositions without applying any sound criterion.
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The article examines some of the most typical syntax structures in Bulgarian colloquial speech – those with omitted elements. Although the elliptical utterances are found in examples of literary language too, the loss of syntax units can be definite as mostly colloquial phenomenon.
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The study investigated the accuracy of non-word production by bilingual and monolingual children. The participants (125 children in total) belonged to two groups of bilingual children with different language repertoires and one group of monolingual Lithuanians. The analysis revealed that the overall performance of both bilingual groups was better than in the monolingual group. The bilingual children demonstrated more accurate and statistically significant results in repeating longer and structurally more complex non-words. The findings of this study suggest that the bilinguals being acquainted with two phonological systems had a greater experience with diverse phonology, which ensured a more precise performance of the task.
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Questions relating to feminization in linguistics are increasingly topical in relation to the invisibilisation of women, the disproportion between male and female representations, LGBT+ media promotion and the "sudden need" to promote so-called inclusive writing. These concerns, which originated in the 18th century, are supported by the recommendations of the High Council for Equality (2015) and have an impact on the structural functioning of the French language. Such an avenue, which does not take into account the social specificities and the contexts of linguistic dissemination in the Francophonie, poses the problem of the dynamism of the French language, of its need to promote equity between male and female representations. This aspiration leads objectively to lexical creativity, the questioning of syntactic and morphological rules but also to a disruption of the grammatical norm.
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The feminization of terms and the grammar “rule of proximity” remain a topical issue for terminologists as well as discourse analysts. If the generic masculine prevails over the noun agreement, the communication context tends to challenge this statement. This paper examines the morphological variation of gender in professional names and analyzes its syntax from a phenomenological point of view. The analytic potential of subduction to syntactic feminization is studied here based on the theoretical framework of Psychomechanics. We use examples drawn mainly from the field of print media, especially the Cameroon Tribune. The final aim is to show that, as for the lexicon, subduction is also a specific modality of the general operation of syntax.
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This paper mainly investigates the differences between men and women in English language from the aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and communications. This paper also analyses the possible physiological, social, cultural and economic reasons for the gender differences in English. It is believed that the different roles played by men and women in society affect their speech styles and result in the gender differences in language.
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The article analyses, how the types of subordination are described in the works on Lithuanian syntax, during the Soviet occupation, during the years between the middle of the 20th century ant the end of eighties. The investigation opens with the Grammar of the Lithuanian language (1945) by Juozas Žiugžda and ends with the manual for higher schools Syntax of the Lithuanian language (1988) by Vytautas Sirtautas and Česys Grenda. Initially, under conditions of occupation school grammar continued the traditions of syntax of independent Lithuania and distinguished only two variants of subordination – agreement and government. This tradition was continued in the works of the ideologue of the occupation regime Juozas Žiugžda. It was only when Pranas Gailiūnas came to Žiugždaʼs help that the three-variant model of subordination, which had already been adopted in scientific works from Russian linguistics, was applied to the school. Bronius Kalinauskas, a lecturer at the Pedagogical Institute, transferred the three-variant Russian syntax model to Lithuanian in the 1960s and early 1970s. Pranas Gailiūnas took over this model from him (or directly from the Russian linguistics) and applied it to secondary, and Jonas Balkevičius – to high school. In Kalinauskasʼ works we also find many differences in the types of subordination (full and partial agreement, strong and weak government, full and partial adjunction), that are most likely taken over from Russian linguistics. Their analysis in later works of Lithuanian syntax has largely defined the field of consideration in this area of grammar. Subordinate syntactic relations were described in works on syntax of two directions during the considered period: as one of the characteristics of the parts of sentence (Žiugžda, Sirtautas), and as the structural basis of word groups (Kalinauskas, Balkevičius, Labutis and Valeckienė). Only in the Grammar of the Lithuanian language, edited by Vytautas Ambrazas (1985), was more clearly turned in the direction of merging both directions. Throughout the considered period, syntactic relations were not distinguished from semantic relations (this is especially obvious when defining the relation of government). And only at the very end of the period (in the article of Vytautas Ambrazas) did these shortcomings of the description of syntactic relations begin to be realized, and an attempt was made to clearly distinguish between syntactic and semantic units. However, the syntactic level of analysis continues to be confused with the morphological (expression) level (agreeing in gender, person, number; governed inflections), both of which are considered as surface levels of language. Already at the beginning of the twentieth century agreement was perceived as the alignment of morphological forms, rather than semantics or syntax. Later, it became known as a variant of a syntactic subordination, without delving into the semantic relationships that this connection conveys. In essence, this multifaceted concept, first merging semantics and morphology, later on – and syntax, has survived throughout the twentieth century and in part continues to this day. Government in independent Lithuania was defined as a semantic relationship, and in the first decades after the war it was generally perceived in a similar way. Nevertheless the semantic (later on and syntactic) nature of the relationship was fused to its morphological expression. At the early period of occupation, agreement and government were associated with the study of word groups, as they made the basis for their structure. Adjunction (šliejimas) in Lithuanian linguistics was singled out as a semantic (later on and as a syntactic) relationship of words that is not expressed by means of morphology. So it was based on surface expression (or not-expression, exactly) only and didnʼt have any distinct syntactic content. The article analyses, how the types of subordination are described in the works on Lithuanian syntax during the years of Soviet occupation – approximately between the middle of the 20th century ant the end of eighties. The investigation opens with the Grammar of the Lithuanian language (1945) by Juozas Žiugžda and ends with teaching aid for higher schools Syntax of the Lithuanian language (1988) by Vytautas Sirtautas and Česys Grenda. Initially, under conditions of occupation school grammar continued the traditions of syntax of independent Lithuania and distinguished only two variants of subordination – agreement and government. This tradition was continued in the works of the ideologue of the occupation regime Juozas Žiugžda. It was only when Pranas Gailiūnas came to help for Žiugžda that the three-variant model of subordination, which had already been adopted in scientific works from Russian linguistics, was applied.
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The work of Piotr Szmidt, not only as a rapper, but also as the author of a contemporary novel (Two dogs survived), is proof of the intensity of the penetration of English borrowings into the Polish language in recent years. The fact that we are dealing, to a large extent, with new vocabulary results from the processes taking place within contemporary culture, not only popular culture (e.g. specialist vocabulary). These phenomena cause the emergence of new lexical forms, both original and resulting from neo-semantization or calqueing. The lexical material includes: neologisms (prank ‘trick’; slow motion ‘tasting, not immediate consumption’; brifowanie ‘summarize’), neo-semantisms (fejmy ‘famous people’, zombie ‘a drugged-up man’), calques (gównoburza < shitstorm), replacements of Polish words and phrases (bez pomysłu na futurę ‘no idea for the future’; ta damulka jest camera shy ‘this lady is camera shy – feature or behavior of a person who doesn’t like to be photographed’), complementing phrases in Polish (ta jego no problem mentality ‘bezproblemowa mentalność’ nie pozwoliłaby mi… ‘his no problem mentality wouldn’t let me ...’), phraseological elements of phrases ((Back in the days ‘kiedyś, dawno temu’ podstawową walutą był szacunek ‘back in the days, the basic currency was respect’). In Mes we are dealing not only with older and newer English vocabulary, adapted rather smoothly to Polish, but, what is equally interesting, with new phenomena in terms of syntax. For example, the fashion of starting sentences in Polish and ending them in English or vice versa (I’m sorry my book ‘przepraszam moja książko, pamiętniku’, jutro do ciebie zajrzę ‘I’m sorry my book, I’ll look at you tomorrow’) requires careful study. English borrowings, similarly to other languages, although to a much lesser extent, serve to renew the resources of the Polish language, to ennoble both their users and the spheres of life they concern, as well as broadly understood pop culture, which has a profound impact on the daily lives of young people. Their use is motivated by snobbery, but above all by the joy of being a bilingual person, of code-switching, so visible in Mesa. Noteworthy are his metalinguistic remarks on borrowings into Polish, a voice that initiates an interesting discussion, which I hope will develop.
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The present paper analysis the position of the qualifying adjective in the nominal group, based on a corpus of texts included in the volume "Romanian documents and notes from the 16th century". The occurrences of the prefixed and postposed qualifying adjective as a modifier will be considered, in order to establish possible preferences of prefix or postposition compared to the nominal determined in the old Romanian language.
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An essential problem with which a good number of linguists have confronted themselves over time is that of giving an accurate picture of aspect. The aspect category varies from language to language.Understanding aspect in all its manifestations is important to our work which seeks to provide a comprehensive picture of the various verbal systems we address.Some aspects are systematic in some languages. It is in the comparison of languagesthat we manage to identify the most subtle verbal aspects and to see them in their true light. Our main comparison concerns French and Romanian. We can say that the classification of verbs in simple and compound tenses in French has a similar figuration with Romanian.
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The superlative expresses the highest degree of meaning of an adjective or an adverb and it can be realized as relative, which implies comparison, and absolute, which indicates a high degree of intensity without direct comparison. In Romanian, there are numerous ways of formation of absolute superlative, grammaticalized or expressive (phonetic, syntactic, lexical). Starting from a more detailed analysis of the absolute superlative in Romanian specialized literature, the aim of our paper is to identify to what extent there are comparable ways of formation of absolute superlative in Croatian, as well as to give an overview of this degree of comparison in Croatian with specific examples from the corpus.
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Religion as a cultural universal can be approached from many disciplines. This paper analyses the use of signs in the Lakota inipi (purification) rite from the perspective of semiotics of religion, applying basic semiotic concepts and theories. The semantic, syntactic and pragmatic approaches are based on a description of the Lakota Inipi rite as recorded in religious anthropological source. The detailed description of the rite in that text is the starting point for a semiotic analysis, for the identification of signs, and sign-acts, and for understanding the role this rite played in the life and religious tradition of the tribe. The aim of the analysis is to understand how the signs demonstrate religious doctrines and help contact with supernatural forces, and at the same time, how they express the group cohesion.
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One of the key terms that we touch on in this paper is the phenomenon of virtuality. In the context of this research, we use the term virtual or virtuality in its meaning which implies the expression of possibility that is present at the textual level (if, as is the case here, we are talking about the written form), but remains in the virtual sphere, or as the potential that is not actualized in the reality to which that text refers. Although the phenomenon of virtuality most often appears as a subject of narratological research, primarily postclassical narratological approaches, the aim of this paper was to analyze this phenomenon from a linguistic point of view, relying on the results of linguistic research on counterfactuality, grammatical, semantic and pragmatic category of modality and discourse analysis. In this paper, we were analyzing different language forms and strategies which are being used, in order to construct such virtual aspects of reality, in various instructions, which are taken as an example of technical-informative genre, which is considered as one of the genres within a wider scientific discourse. We limited our analysis to two groups: (1) instructions for use of drugs and dietary supplements and (2) instructions for use of household appliances. The selected material consisted of a total of ten instructive texts, with five belonging to the first group and five to the second. The aim of this paper was to point out the most frequent linguistic markers that indicate the presence of the phenomenon of virtuality and different purposes of its use. Firstly, the basic features of the chosen theoretical and methodological framework, as well as the status and main features of the instructions genre in the context of classifications based on functional stratification of language were presented. Finally, the presence of category of virtuality within the instructions was explored. The analysis pointed out that linguistic markers that show the presence of the category of virtuality include examples at different levels of linguistic organization, such as the use of modal verbs and semantically similar lexemes and expressions, the use of imperatives and conditionals, and the use of adverbial conditional clauses. These linguistic forms and strategies are formulated in such a way that they simultaneously confirm certain general features of scientific functional style (e. g. impersonal constructions, objectivity, avoidance of emotional or expressive vocabulary), but they also include examples that do not fit into the ones that could be considered as expected in the context of scientific style (e. g. imperative, second person plural), which can be explained by the communicative orientation of instructions towards the final recipient of the message. The analyzed examples show that the phenomenon of virtuality is not related exclusively to the sphere of literary narratives, but it can also be found in examples of genres belonging to different types of discourse, in this case – scientific one.
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The article considers lexical and syntactic word formation based on works of Ukrainian literature. Hermeneutics is closely related to philology, but most often examines the text from the point of view of literary criticism. The linguistic aspect, namely the study of occasionalisms, is much less studied. Attention to Ukrainian culture is growing, and in this context it can be an interesting source of hermeneutic research. This article examines the most interesting examples of occasionalisms, which by their function and non-standard structure are divided into two types – a priori and a posteriori. The difference between coalescences (words formed in a lexical-syntactic way) and similar words and phenomena has also been clarified. Most of these words are related to holophrases, but in Ukrainian literature there are examples that we call a posteriori coalescences, they are formed according to individual authorial models and have almost no analogues in the texts of other writers. We hope that this study will be an important step in the study of Ukrainian language and literature in the world and will draw attention to Ukrainian culture – a culture with millennial traditions.
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