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this eBook is a "Digsimile" (digital Facsimile)-Edition of the original volume published in 1929. The series of the annuals have been started by a group of young historians of the Jweish community of Bohemia who,, after the first World War and for the first time in history, got access to the archives in Prague and in Vienna.
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Ivan Shishmanov put the foundations and developed the Italian language, culture and literature. In this article the author exposes his accomplishments in this sphere and how he achieved them.
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Spisi koji su pred nama predstavljaju primjer crkvene birokratske „literature“– strogo formaliziran niz pitanja koja je vatikanska administracija postavljala svojim službenicima, te odgovori koji su na njih dobiveni. Međutim, osim suhih podataka o kanoničkim karijerama i ustroju kaptola, ovi nam dokumenti otvaraju prozor u mnoge segmente života onodobnoga Senja: vjerski, kulturni, intelektualni, trgovački, pa i onaj koji bismo nazvali zabavnim – i po tome su specifični u odnosu na većinu preostalih spisa iz korpusa koji nazivamo kanonskim vizitacijama.
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Prvotni franjevački samostan u Kraljevoj Sutjesci podignut je najvjerojatnije u prvoj polovici 14. stoljeća. Samostan je bio izložen stradanjima i rušenju vjerojatno već 1463. godine, ali je već 1469. aktivan. Između 1521-1524. opet je porušen, no uporni fratri su ga ponovo podigli uz velike poteškoće. Posebno je burna povijest Bosne, pa onda i ovog područnog samostana u 17. i 18. stoljeću. Bilo je to doba ratovanja između Turske i Austrije. Podsjećamo da tada dolazi do prvih velikih poraza Osmanlija od strane vojski europskih vladara. Prvi od njih je poraz pod Siskom 1593. godine. Slijedi četrnaestogodišnji rat 1593-1606. godine iza kojega Osmanlije ustupaju dio svojih teritorija Austriji. Potom dolazi do Kandijskog rata 1645-1669. godine između Osmanlija i Mlečana. Opet Osmanlije gube teritorije koje su držali u Dalmaciji. Tu je i Bečki rat – 1683-1699. godine, koji je završen mirom u Sremskim Karlovcima 22. siječnja 1699. godine. Njime je posve dokrajčena osmanlijska premoć u Europi. Izgubili su Ugarsku, najveći dio Hrvatske, te neke dijelove istočne i jugoistočne Europe. Osmanlije se ne mire s tim, te traže povoda za nove sukobe i s Mlečanima i s Austrijom. Do njih i dolazi. Ponovo je ishod nepovoljan za njih. Mir je sklopljen u Požarevcu 1718. godine uz nove teritorijalne gubitke za Osmanlije. Austriji rastu apetiti i za Bosnom te pokreće Banjalučki rat 1737-1739. godine, gubi ga i sklapa mir u Beogradu 1739. Osmanlije vraćaju teritorije koje su bili izgubili u Bosni i u Srbiji.
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Odgoj srca i uma kroz povijest Crkve i Franjevačkog reda zauzima prvo mjesto u odgoju svećeničko-redovničkih pripravnika. Škola je tu radi čovjeka kako bi mu pomogla da upozna, razumije i nadvlada teškoće svijeta u kojem živi. Ona ima zadatak formirati čovjeka u njegovoj stvarnosti konačnog subjekta koji teži beskonačnom. Još za života Franjo Asiški je dopustio bratu Antunu Padovanskom da poučava braću u Sv. pismu.2 Već 1214. imamo u Bologni učilište u Franjevačkom redu, potom u Parizu braća 1224. grade kuću a 1231. u Parizu počinje poučavati fra Aleksandar Haleški i od učilišta nastaje javno učilište tj. sveučilište. Godine 1224. devetorica franjevaca studenata različitih narodnosti Francuza, Engleza, Talijana odlaze iz Pariza na čelu s fra Anđelom iz Pize u Oxford i iz svog malog samostana pohađali su predavanja na Univerzitetu. Druga skupina franjevačkih novaka stigla je u Cambridge, iako je živjela u malenim siromašnim kućicama, rado je slušala predavanja fra Roberta Grossatesta. U Njemačkoj su u isto vrijeme nastala franjevačka učilišta u Magdeburgu na Elbi, zatim u Strasburgu, Hildesheimu, Augsburgu, Regensburgu itd. Franjevački život Manje braće bio je plodonosan za znanost koja traži slobodu srca, slobodu od pohlepe za dobitkom, za nasladama i za častima, jer nesebična ljubav omogućuje traganje za istinom.
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Ahdnama bosanskih franjevaca je temeljni dokument, kojim je islamskoosmanski zakonodavac legitimirao prisutnost i djelovanje bosanskih franjevaca u Osmanskom carstvu nakon osvojenja Bosanskog Kraljevstva 1463. Povijest toga dokumenta jednako je burna kao i povijest bosanskih franjevaca i njihovih samostana. Kao ni brojni franjevački samostani i crkve, ni Ahdnama u svom izvornom obliku nije preživjela paljevine i ratna razaranja. Naime, original Ahdname je negdje izgorio ili nestao na neki drugi način. Uz nekoliko prijepisa i prijevoda sačuvao se i jedan rekonstruirani oblik toga dokumenta, koji je u političkom i pravnom pogledu fungirao kao original. U prvom dijelu ovoga priloga napravljen je osvrt na političke prilike i pravni okvir u kojima je Ahdnama nastala; drugi dio posvećen je stručnim paleografskim i diplomatičkim analizama s naglaskom na paralelama između Fojničke ahdname i sličnih dokumenata; treći dio bavi se političkim stanjem katoličanstva pod osmanskom vlašću u 16. i 17. st. odnosno Ahdnamom u političkoj praksi. Prilog završava s kratkim zapažanjem o Ahdnami kao metafori za kojom se poseže u suvremenoj BiH, i to tako da se – uz ostalo i na temelju toga dokumenta - na jednoj strani idealizira osmansko razdoblje bh. povijesti, a na drugoj to isto razdoblje demonizira.
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Povijesnom istraživanju bilo kojega prostora ili zajednice može se pristupiti na različite načine i može se istraživati različite oblasti života i djelovanja čovjeka u nekom prostoru. Pristup koji je zastupljen u ovome prilogu bilo je istraživanje podrijetla imena pojedinih lokaliteta na prostoru župe Guča Gora. Cilj je bio pomoći drugim istraživačima iz različitih grana znanosti da dobiju početnu sliku i da nepotrebno ne gube vrijeme na lociranju interesantnih ciljeva za svoj rad. Prije svih željelo se pomoći arheolozima i etnolozima - etnografima. Za rad je, uglavnom, korištena građa koja se nalazi u zemljišnim knjigama suda u Travniku (Gruntovnici), a posebice onaj dio građe, koji je nastajao prigodom izrade prvih zemljišnih knjiga 1892. godine. Osim toga dio građe prikupljen je radom na terenu. Očekujemo da ovaj prilog povijesti župe Guča Gora nju barem malo više osvijetli jer tko ju pozornije pročita, kao da pred sobom ima živu povijest kroz nazive njiva i livada na kojima ovi ljudi žive. Nas su nazivi lokaliteta upućivali na postojanje zgrada, putova, crkava ili molitvišta, grobalja, načine privređivanja, zanimanje pučanstva i slično. Osim toga, sporadično smo se dotaknuli i nekih drugih pitanja kao što su nestanak i nastanak nekih prezimena, vlasničkih odnosa u to vrijeme, te povijesti nastanka samih zemljišnih knjiga. Potenciramo vrijednost ove građe posebice za one koji se bave poviješću kraja XIX. stoljeća i XX., a posebice pitanjem društvenih odnosa toga vremena.
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The article constitutes an attempt at analyzing the figure of the labyrinth, which has existed in the Western culture since antiquity until the present times. The author follows the conception of the labyrinth based upon the assumption that even in the oldest civilizations, the labyrinth was conceived of as more than just a structure. Entering a labyrinth involved an inherent change in the ontological situation of the external world, subjected to the complex process of crossing the threshold. This architectural curiosity has continued to intrigue scholars and artists across the ages, becoming at the same time a reflection of the dominant intellectual, cultural and social trends at the time. The labyrinth, then, emerges as a construct which describes the external world. According to that assumption, in the second part of the article, the concept of the labyrinth is used to describe the postmodern reality.
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The association with the Catholicism and the Roman Catholic Church had already in the past been perceived by the dynasty of Habsburgs as an expression of unity and strength of the widely differentiated union of states. However, it was only during the seemingly quiet time period of the 18th century that the dynasty managed to turn the Catholic Church into one of the means of enforcing their power and the power of the state. In addition, the confessional structure of the society in the monarchy was changed as well: the non-Catholics, though still marginal, developed into a quite important group of believers. The time period, during which the modernisation of the life in the Habsburg monarchy started through the reforming effort of the state power, brought along principal changes to the life of the Protestant communities. The position of the Protestant churches in the civil society started to shift from oppression towards acceptance by the civil society, and their internal development could finally comply with their internal needs. The functioning of the Lutheran community and Church in the society is described in the introductory chapter. Here, an attention is given to the destinies of people who suffered under the confessional oppression, but also to the methods and controversial results of the re-Catholicizing measures, as they were recorded by the Lutheran agent of the Vienna court (or the Hungarian Court Office) in his official dairies. The changes in the every-day coexistence of the confessions that started with the issuance of the Patent of Tolerance could be evidenced only gradually: in spite of the fact that the Hungarian society was accustomed to the coexistence of several confessions, the issuance of the Patent evoked quite a turmoil in the society. It was especially concerning the administrative bodies (in counties but also in dicasteries – the supreme state administration bodies) that were facing the task of co-operation with the Protestants. An interesting field for confrontation between the Catholics and Lutherans, but also between both Evangelical churches, was created by ,,missions” of Lutherans to Bohemia and Moravia. In return, these missions exercised an impact on the inter-confessional relations within the Hungarian kingdom. The character of these relations was also marked with the general political situation in the monarchy as a whole, but mainly with the fear that the non-Catholics could possible get connected with the foreign powers (Prussia), or even with the revolutionary circles abroad (France). In addition, the long time maintained mentality of supremacy among Catholics on one hand, and the feeling of exclusiveness nurtured among Lutherans on the other turned into sources of intolerance, which in many cases got expressed after the issuance of the Patent of Tolerance or the Religious Act No.26/1791. The relation of the Lutheran Church and community to the state represented an important aspect of their functioning. The state, even after the issuance of the Patent of Tolerance, made an effort in terms of determining the areas of its exclusive interest. At first place it were the schools where the exclusion of general education from the outreach of the church institutions wanted to be achieved, and on the second place the liturgies were required to be “rationalized” according to ideas presented by Joseph II. Especially the topic of school reform, which was planned to be accomplished through establishing combined schools and applying secular supervision of education and textbooks, is a subject of a detailed examination The problems that the Lutheran (Evangelical AC) church was confronted with resulted in a controversial internal development. The pressure put by the state and the Catholic church on this confession evoked a need for internal consistency, owing to which the church was able to preserve its identity, even under the influence of unfavourable conditions. However, this development resulted in a considerable rigidity that could be seen in the outlasting adherence to the Lutheran orthodoxy, being the dominant theological orientation. In course of the 18th century, it was first of all the socially conditioned phenomenon, owing to which the influence of clergies could be preserved within the church structure. In the Lutheran society, tensions started to appear between the secular patrons, who were the only ones entitled to protect the interests of churches on the various levels of the state administration, and the superintendents, who were acknowledged by the state to be the official representatives of the church and were assigned some, though little, competencies. The relations between the secular and clerical members of the church were also complicated by the fact that the system of consistories did not get naturalised in the Hungarian monarchy, and the synods could not be summoned after 1707. Even though several ideas on how the internal circumstances of the church should be settled (e.g. Jan Cernansky, before 1779) were developed, the situation was not stabilised before 1791 when the synod was finally summoned. At this synod, the influence of the secular church representatives was forced through. As a result, the clerical representatives started to show concerns regarding the Lutheran identity preservation that was perceived to be endangered by the initial proposals to create a union of Lutherans and Calvinists. The advocates, who were determining the development of the Evangelical AC Church in the course of the 18th century, developed into a relatively small but in terms of education, theological and philosophical orientation a quite varied group of people who were taking up secular as well as church positions. The influence of their advocacy was considerable. Closer attention is paid to those who managed to exceed the activity field assigned to them by their work position, and exercised an influence on the attitudes of people around. Because the positions they were taking up were not the most significant ones, their influence as if ,,from the background” did not get to the attention centre of the recent historiography (Pavol Sramko/Schramko), or it was not adequately evaluated (Michal Institoris Mossoczy). Through their works and activities, the advocates of Lutheranism managed to permeate into the circles that were close to the Vienna Royal Court and thus contribute to forming the attitudes of the Court regarding the religious issues in Hungary (Jozef Benczur). In addition, people who were in a direct work contact with the Royal Court (Court Agents), or those who were in charge of informing the foreign countries about the events in Hungary with an aim to advocate for the Hungarian Protestants living abroad, were quite active in this field as well.
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The presented monograph is an anthology of case-studies dealing with various aspects of military history of Slovakia starting with the antecedences of the 1848 revolution and continuing till the early beginnings of World War I. The texts are selected and arranged in chronological order. This mentioned period represents an era of crucial importance for the development of national consciousness of the Slovak nation. During that time, many revolutionary changes of social order took place in Hungarian Kingdom; decisive political struggles about the form of modernization were fought, the social structure and spiritual fundament changed radically, national contradictions among the nations living in the kingdom were more and more evident, the oppressive policy of Magyar elites towards other nations and nationalities strengthened. In consequence, the Slovak political representatives were pushed into a defensive position and they set as they primary goal the safeguarding of the Slovak national existence. The publication is divided into four parts: introduction, two basic chapters ordered chronologically and conclusion. In the first chapter titled Approaching the World War, I pay attention to the year of revolution, 1848, which represented a major turning point in the transition from feudalism to the capitalism and which deeply influenced the process of bourgeois transformation of the majority of European states. Further, it was for the first time in modern history of the Slovak nation, that an independent armed action of the Slovaks took place – the socalled September Uprising in 1848. In this chapter, the issues connected with the armed action of the Slovak volunteers in September 1848 serve as a background for a complex military historical analysis of that time. The Austro-Prussian War fought in 1866 that culminated in the defeat of Austrian army in the Battle of Königgrätz (Hradec Králové), brought a correction of great power ambitions of the Habsburg Empire, it further led to a revision of its foreign policy and cause inner political turbulences, leading to the Austro-Hungarian (Magyar) constitutional settlement in 1867. Last but not least, a reform of Austro-Hungarian army was initiated. In the second chapter, I consider the course of the mentioned war and its consequences, paying attention to the participation of Slovaks in the military formations of the Monarchy. The next three studies in this chapter seek to illustrate the system of resurrection of the Austro-Hungarian army and the organizational development of the infantry and cavalry units specifically considering the effects of those issues on Slovakia and the role of Slovaks in the frames of the Habsburg army and the units referred to. It is worth a mention that this is the first comprehensive attempt in Slovak historiography to reflect the above-mentioned issues. The studies are supplemented by tables and schemes and they are followed by an analysis of the nationality issue in the army – both the Habsburg and the Honvéd army – as well as the reactions of the Slovak policy to the mentioned questions in the last decades before World War I. Another chapter is dealing with the military and diplomatic background of events that followed after the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo and which culminated in the World War I. The final study of this chapter is dealing with military plans of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy in the eve of the outbreak of World War I, taking into account their connection with the military plans of the general staff of the German army. The second part of this book is titled Slovaks in the Great War and is subdivided into three chapter, each of them monitoring the first stage of military actions in the north-eastern front, where numerous Slovak soldiers incorporated to the V. battalion of Bratislava and VI. battalion of Košice took part. In the first chapter I focus on the prelude of the Austro-Hungarian military formations operations in the north-eastern front during August 1914, which later resulted in most determined fights in the initial phase of World War I. In the following study, I consider the most extensive military operation of the Austro-Hungarian army in the north-eastern front – the Battle of Kraśnik. My last study is dealing with the Battle of Komarów, in the Russian literature better known as the Battle of Tomaszów. In both battles, many soldiers coming from Slovakia lost their lives. In addition to a detailed description of the course of these battles and the whole military situation, I pay attention to some controversial decisions taken by the high command of the Austro-Hungarian army, resulting from frictions and discrepancies between the German and Austro-Hungarian military command. These decisions caused setbacks of particular military operations. World War I and its consequences changed the political map of Europe and brought a dramatic change in the balance of power. The multinational Habsburg monarchy, which long before the outbreak of the Great War wasn’t able to respond and satisfy the demands (political, lingual, cultural etc.) of oppressed nations, ceased to exist. On its ruins, new state raised. By the establishment of the Czecho-Slovak state on democratic principles, Slovakia and the Slovaks entered a new historical era.
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U Portugaliji je 1975. godine kontrarevolucija bila sama revolucija, zatočena u ponavljanje svojih obrazaca, u odsustvu teorijskog rada pobornika pretvorenih u vojnike, koji su se poduhvatili da, još jedanput, gestom kolekcionara, ponovo ožive praktična iskustva Lenjina, Trockog, i, u novije vreme, Rosela ili generala Klisrea, koji su im bili poznati iz kolonijalnog rata. Tim povodom Žan Danijel se zapitao: “Šta bi zaista mogla da znači ideja avangarde potpuno odvojene od masa, oslonjene samo na manjinu oružane sile?”.
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Medieval epigraphs written in Arabic and found in the Middle Volga region provide some very important historical evidence for any student of the regional history. For they preserved an important page of the medieval written culture. The authors address a corpus of Arabic inscriptions made on stones in the first half of the 16th century, identified during the excavations on the territory of the Kazan Kremlin in the early 2000s. Fragments of stones stored in the Museum of Archaeology (Institute of Archaeology, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Tatarstan) contain some fragments of texts in Arabic, including fragments of words and some separate letters. The paper describes the context in which these inscriptions were revealed and offers a reading of the texts on stones. Specific usages of these stones are suggested. Some fragments could be architectural elements.
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The destinies of the states which had developed on the basis of the Golden Horde were similar (all of them were incorporated into the Russian State), but differed in details (ways by which they were absorbed). One of such states is the Siberian Khanate of Kuchum: its history needs a more complete description. Thus, attention is paid to the collapse of the khanate as a result of the Russian expansion. Three stages are distinguished: Yermak’s campaign, inactive presence of the Russians in Siberia, systematic actions aimed to destroy the Khanate. It is suggested that the future tsar Boris Godunov played an important role in the organizations of a major campaign led by Prince Yeletsky.
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In the early 16th century, the Nogai Horde reached its natural boundaries, limited from the west by the Volga River. However, this obstacle hampered their migrations, limiting the space required by the Manghits. So almost immediately they started a longed struggle for new territories with their neighbors — the Crimean and Astrakhan khanates. In 1530—1550, the struggle reached its peak, but neither of the parties at war managed to resolve the problem of ownership rights to the territories along the banks of the Volga River and its Delta distributaries in their favor. The problem of nomadic hordes delimitation was ultimately resolved after the conquest of the Volga region by the Russian State.
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Jędrzej Moraczewski’s thoroughly subjective memories reveal a small dose of privacy. However, through the mesh of the author’s life story, they show the picturesque Galician reality, the mechanisms determining the functioning of institutions, offices and political parties towards the end of the 19th century, as well as the intellectual elite milieu in the 19th-century Lwów. This environment had a great impact on shaping Moraczewski’s national, civil and political consciousness. It also affected the choice of his ideological path and his active participation in public life.
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Work of Albert Caleb, Dr. in Law, Docent at Geneva University, member of Societé de Législation Comparée (Paris). Published in 1909 in Geneva (GEORG & Co, éditeurs) and Paris (Librairie générale de droit et de jurisprudence)
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The Macedonian question arose on the day when European diplomacy at the Congress of Berlin (1878) replaced Macedonia under the authority of the Sultan, which, by the Treaty of San Stefano, was included in the Bulgarian state. Since then much has been written on this question and on the dispute between Bulgarians and Serbs, the former wanting to maintain their national unity in the cultural field and pursuing the achievement of political unity and the Serbs seeking to expand at the expense of their neighbors from the east. (introduction by the translator)
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Published in 1906 by Librairie Plon in Paris. // Authors preface: "This is the full story of Macedonia and the reforms over the past ten years: on the one hand, the suffering and heroic struggles of the Macedonian people; on the other hand, the desperate efforts of the Sultan to keep under the knife this people which his brothers of Bulgaria, Serbia, Rumania and Greece civilized by the schools, but which they are unable to deliver by arms, less for lack of a military power, which would induce the end of the Ottoman rule, than for lack of a diplomatic agreement, which would combine all the interests and all the efforts in the service of civilization and liberty."
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Fr. Stanisław Konarski (1700–1773), Piarist, was one of the most outstanding figures in Polish intellectual life in the 18th century. His last book O religii poczciwych ludzi [On the Religion of Honest Men] (1769) was read with great interest for over two hundred years – first by its contemporary readers, then by historians of ideas and researchers of the Polish Enlightenment. In both cases, the book did not cease to attract attention due to the atmosphere of the scandal, which at the end of the Konarski’s life had reached wide circles – from the Warsaw nunciature to the Congregation of the Holy Office in Rome. The basic facts related to the trial, which took place in the Roman curia, were known to Polish historiography, but thus far only superficially. Hitherto unknown documents from the archives of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (former Holy Office) allow for the accurate reconstruction of the turbulent history of a book which in fact risked being including in the Index of Forbidden Books, even though it was written in defence of Christianity against 18th-century deism.
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Oblicza Wojny is a series published by the Lodz University Press since 2020, dedicated to military conflicts throughout the centuries. The ninth volume of this series is titled Tools of War. When thinking about tools used during wars, various types of weaponry and armament come to mind, and this is precisely the subject matter of the texts published in this volume. The discussions include fortifications in the Battle of Dyrrachium in 48 BCE, the armament of knights from the royal retinues of Polish kings in the second half of the 15th century, and the weaponry amassed in the arsenals of Krakow in the 17th century. Subsequent articles concern the 20th century, highlighting the use of armored trains in the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1919-1921, the fate of the Polish 1st Tank Regiment at the end of World War I, Irish guerrilla warfare in the years 1919-1921, armament production in Poland before 1939, and aircraft used during World War II. The volume also includes an article on a rarely discussed topic by historians, which is the equipment of the Polish military from 1945 to 1989. The volume concludes with an article dedicated to attempts to create an army of the League of Arab States in 21st century. The authors are professional historians, and their texts are based on thorough analysis of sources.
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