Dejtonski sporazum za Bosnu i Hercegovinu

Author(s): Thorsten Gromes / Language(s): Bosnian Publication Year: 0

Prilog skicira rat vođen za Republiku Bosnu i Hercegovinu i prikazuje sklapanje mirovnog sporazuma u Daytonu. Analizira najznačajnije sadržaje odredbi dejtonskog sporazuma i pokazuje da njegove odredbe po pitanju demokratizacije, povratka izbjeglica i prognanika i procesuiranja ratnih zločina nadmašuju tadašnje odnose moći. Prilog opisuje implementaciju centralnih sadržaja mirovnog sporazuma koji će i sljedećih godina određivati politički diskurs u Bosni i Hercegovini.

Drugačija Rusija: Pogled iz Srbije

Author(s): Milan Subotić / Language(s): Serbian Publication Year: 0

Ove godine navršava se četvrt veka od „avgustovskog puča” (1991) čiji je neuspeh ubrzao raspad Sovjetskog Saveza i doveo do nastanka Ruske Federacije i drugih nezavisnih država – članica negdašnjeg „neraskidivog saveza”. Za brojne „sovjetologe” koji su decenijama proučavali „prvu zemlju socijalizma” mirnodopski slom svetske supersile koji je, na početku svog drugog predsedničkog mandata, Vladimir Putin nazvao „najvećom geopolitičkom katastrofom XX veka” (Putin, 2005), bio je potpuno neočekivan. Stoga je razumljivo što se još vode teorijski sporovi o uzrocima i dinamici raspada države koja se njenim podanicima i inostranim posmatračima „činila večnom, sve dok nije nestala” (Yurchak, 2005). Tokom devedesetih godina prošlog veka ove rasprave su pretežno bile usmerene na tumačenje sovjetske istorije, jer su polazile od uverenja da je, za razliku od neprozirne prošlosti, budućnost postsovjetskih društava i država lako predvidljiva. [...]

The European Union as a normative Foreign Policy Actor

Author(s): Natalie Tocci,Hakim Darbouche ,Michael Emerson,Sandra Fernandes,Ruth Hanau-Santini,Gergana Noutcheva,Clara Portela / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The opening chapter set out the conceptual framework for exploring the question of Who is a normative foreign policy actor? The European Union and its Global Partners. This chapter constitutes one of several case studies applying this framework to the behaviour of the European Union, whereas the others to follow concern China, India, Russia and the United States. A normative foreign policy is rigorously defined as one that is normative according to the goals set, the means employed and the results obtained. Each of these studies exploreseight actual case examples of foreign policy behaviour, selected in order to illustrate four alternative paradigms of foreign policy behaviour – the normative, the realpolitik, the imperialistic and the status quo. For each of these four paradigms,there are two examples of EU foreign policy, one demonstrating intended consequences and the other, unintended effects.

European and Transatlantic Defence-Industrial Strategies: A European View

Author(s): Burkard Schmitt / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The history of transatlantic armaments cooperation goes back to the beginning of the cold war. Since then, however, the nature of cooperation has changed considerably, from the simple licensing of US systems to Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s to co-production arrangements in the 1970s, followed by government-to-government joint development in the 1980s and 1990s. In recent years, industry-led cooperation has become the most prominent feature.

Emigration Policy in the PostConstitutional Period (1908-1914)

Author(s): Meryem Günaydın / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

The emigration from the Ottoman Empire to America from the 1820s to 1914 became a long-time matter with a history of about 80-90 years. Immigration to America from Anatolia, Rumelia, and the Arab provinces continued intensely from the last 30-35 years of the Ottoman Empire. In the period after the proclamation of the Second Constitution, not only wealthy and skilled artisans and craftsmen but also unskilled workers and peasants’ participation in this immigration. The immigration movements to America occurred in groups of 3-4 people or 5-10 people. A mass immigration was out of question. It took place on a voluntary basis. Apart from various reasons according to the information revealed in the archive documents and memoirs, these immigrations usually occurred due to economic conditions and forcing factor brought about by the military obligation.

John the Baptist’s Water: Extinction of a Millennial Culture

Author(s): Saad Salloum / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

At the end of filming a documentary, I sat with the Reesh Umma Sattar Jabbar Al Hilou, head of the Mandaean sect, in his religious headquarter in Qadisiya locality on the banks of the Tigris River in Baghdad. The man stood like an old angel descending from the sky with his white beard and his clothes, made up of pure white cloth, which the Mandaeans call Al Resta. He was awaiting the baptism of two new clerics.

NEOREALİZM BAĞLAMINDA TÜRK DIŞ POLİTİKASI (1945-1965)

Author(s): Latif Pınar / Language(s): Turkish Publication Year: 0

Bu çalışma, Kenneth Waltz tarafından ortaya konulan Neorealist yaklaşımın uluslararası sistemin temel özelliklerine ilişkin varsayımları bağlamında, 1945-1965 yılları arasında Türk dış politikasının temel parametrelerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Çalışmada, İkinci Dünya Savaşı'nın hemen ardından ortaya çıkan iki kutuplu sistemin, Türk dış politikası üzerinde belirleyici bir etkisinin bulunup bulunmadığı sorusuna cevap aranmaktadır. Çalışmanın hipotezi şu şekilde formüle edilmiştir: Kenneth Waltz tarafından geliştirilmiş olan Neorealist yaklaşımın uluslararası sistemin temel özelliklerine ilişkin varsayımları dikkate alındığında, iki kutuplu sistem, bilhassa 1945-1965 yılları arasında Türk dış politikası üzerinde belirleyici bir etkide bulunmuştur.

Kurýři a převaděči jako jedna z forem protikomunistického odboje

Author(s): Libor Svoboda / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

Dispatching couriers was a long-standing and traditional method of intelligence work. People were illegally sent across what was called the green border to the territory of another state where they carried out intelligence missions of various types: they acquired important information related to security, the economy and the military, recruited collaborators, brought people across the border and in some cases carried out sabotage behind enemy lines. They operated on foreign territory for a limited period, depending on the mission in question – from a few hours to several weeks or even months. For reasons of conspiracy, the couriers acted in utter secrecy and sometimes assumed false identities. Couriers were closely linked to the activities of people-smugglers; indeed, the two terms are very frequently interchangeable as many couriers also operated as people-smugglers. A people-smuggler was somebody who actively helped others to cross state borders illegally. Many of them were also linked to foreign intelligence headquarters, for which they also ensured the cross-border passage of couriers; they helped them prepare for operations inside Czechoslovakia and also provided them with logical assistance (with accommodation, food, etc.). Thanks to their actions, couriers and people smugglers, who are often forgotten today, made an important mark on the history of Czechoslovakia’s anti-communist resistance.

Budování ženijnětechnického zajištění v úseku 12. plánské pohraniční brigády

Author(s): Pavel Vaněk / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

The study deals with the process of construction of so called engineering measures in the area of one of the Border Guard brigades – the 12th Border Guard brigade whose command was in Planá. It discusses the different types of measures: trap lights, control zone, clearings, three-wall barricade and its electrification and mining. The construction started in the second half of the year 1951. The time schedule of the action proved the work was done in haste. Many tasks had to be performed again, either due to a partial destruction of the barrier walls after trunks and stumps had been pulled out from the inside of the wired barricade or after mines had spontaneously exploded. We can conclude that the so called engineering measures were completed by the end of 1953, though not entirely without problems in the forest parts.

Osudy prachatického kurýra Josefa Ludvíka na pozadí zpravodajských operací čs. exilu

Author(s): Petr Mallota / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

The study maps the extraordinary life story of Josef Ludvík. Born in South Bohemia, he served in the police force and during the occupation he joined the anti-Nazi resistance movement. After communists had seized power in Czechoslovakia, he acted in a similar way. As a member of the National Security Corps he defected from his place of service in Prachatice to West Germany in the summer of 1949. After crossing the border he went through several refugee camps, including the famous Valka camp near Nuremberg, and later he joined the anti-communist resistance organized under the auspices of American and British intelligence services. As a courier (so called agent-walker), he crossed the border in the area of the Šumava mountains and fulfilled commissioned intelligence tasks in the border zone and inland of Czechoslovakia. In the course of almost two years he undertook five missions on which he met or cooperated with many outstanding exile figures, such as the legendary “King of Šumava”, courier Josef Hasil, the prominent senior intelligence officer Major Karel Černý, or Ludvík’s relative, courier and leading executive, Jaroslav Kaska. His fifth mission in May 1951 ended up a disaster for both Josef Ludvík and his colleague Vladimír Palma after they were detained by a Border Guard patrol near Bučina. In February 1952 they stood before the tribunal of the State Court in Prague which sentenced them to death in a monster political show trial. The sentence was executed on 8 July 1952 in the Pankrác execution room. The research studies Ludvík’s anti-communist resistance activities carried out from behind the border in a broader context of intelligence operations of the Czechoslovak exile.

Osobný príbeh „agenta-chodca“ Živodara Tvarožka

Author(s): Slavomír Michálek / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

The presented study looks into the personal story of Živodar Tvarožek, a son of Minister of Finance of the Slovak National Committee, Tomáš Tvarožek. Živodar Tvarožek was among the passengers on the Dakota aircraft, whose escape was prepared by former RAF members. After a short stay in Munich and Frankfurt, he returned to Slovakia as an “agent-walker” upon the suggestion of Michal Zibrín and was tasked to revive the old and open new intelligence contacts and to inform the western Counter Intelligence Corps (CIC) about the development in Czechoslovakia. After a short time, he was arrested and charged with anti-Czechoslovak espionage in a political trial. The original death sentence was changed to a life sentence and later to 20 years of imprisonment. He worked in uranium mines until the amnesty. After his return to civilian life, he worked as a workman. He lives in Bratislava.

Životní styl a každodennost v Československu v padesátých a šedesátých letech 20. století

Author(s): Martin Franc / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

This study contemplates basic factors of the style of life in Czechoslovakia during the 1950s and the 1960s with focus on the generation gap and opinions of young people. It attempts to analyze historical progress in that area and show phenomena typical for each period. For the 1940s and the beginning of the 1950s it is the general pursuit of collectivity. Really strong collectivist pressures attacked the foundations of the individuality only during a relatively short period and addressed only specific groups in the society, especially amongst young people, who are susceptible to it in general under other circumstances. Beyond the collectivism the Sovietisation and the ostentatious acceptance of Soviet practices and inspirations were another distinct and represented phenomenon. The Sovietisation, in spite of its obtrusiveness and omnipresence, did not make an essential mark on the everyday life. The extensive adoration of the manual labour and the working class is also often mentioned when talking about the everyday life of the beginning of the 1950s as well as general application of the class principles to the everyday life of the people and resulting decline from previous social order. Basically there was a struggle between two leading lifestyle philosophies at the beginning of the fifties. While the first one made an effort to establish genuine culture of the proletariat, the second one tried to adopt the lifestyle of the existing middle class. Since the half of the 1950s the second conception established itself distinctively. The “Khrushchevism” of the second half of the 1950s attempted to harmonize the divergence between ideology and products of the modern civilization that often came from the officially hated western countries. The range of food and consumer goods was widened more attention was paid to their aesthetic values as well. Renewed were also the attempts to create “a new socialist individual” and also the image of the socialist lifestyle as full-fledged alternative to the western consumer society (at least on the theoretical level). The economic depression and resulting shortages at the beginning of the 1960s dispersed any naive ideas about the life in socialism and early transition into the communist society. But it was not only the depression influencing the lifestyle, but also the coming of age of the post-war population boomers, which resulted in evolution of the popular art culture. Czech and Slovak youths discomforted party ideologists with their distaste for involvement in politics and inclination to some features of the western consumer society. The depression forced opening of the country to the western tourists and the build-up of the related infrastructure. And the foreign impulses and following changes like shift to more or less western type consumer society became the basic factors of the sixties’ lifestyle. It is of course necessary to mention that it was very often only a game imitating elements of the western consumer society. This build-up of the virtual bubble culminated in 1968 was numbed by the normalization for only a certain time and in some aspects.

Každodennost v Československu v období tzv. normalizace

Author(s): Jan Rychlík / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

After 1989 the research of communism focused moreover on repressions in the fifties and human rights violation during the so called normalization. In fact, most people from the middle and lower classes, factory workers, collective farmers and lower engineering personnel did not feel the lack of essential liberties. They did not discuss or comment politics in public and whatever they said in private, the regime really did not care. Most of the Czechoslovak citizens did not openly act against the communist regime: they were also not willing to support the regime in case of crisis, which became obvious during November 1989. They were willing to tolerate it as a necessary evil. The regime made an attempt to pacify masses with generous social policy, which aspired to make the society politically passive in spite of ostentatious request for its active role in politics. The citizens were asked to care mainly about themselves and their family. Social policy played a fundamental role in the policy line of the communist party during the so called normalization. The main effort of the party was to ensure full employment as the foundation of the social stability. The social interventions of the state were presented as the results of the socialist state’s care for people and especially young families.

Média v Československu v letech 1945–1989 a jejich vliv na každodenní život

Author(s): Petr Bednařík / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

From 1945 to 1948 the media in Czechoslovakia lived through rough changes. The system of media was established on the bases that the main publishers of the periodicals were to be only political parties and state institutions. Private enterprise was excluded from the media. The time of changes claimed the existence of many periodicals from the first republic and gave life to some new ones, which were released during the rest of the existence of the communist regime. After the end of the world war a new system was introduced, which rationed paper to issuers and publishers. The system was in existence till 1980s and became a tool to favor some periodicals or authors. Offer did not meet demand and readers had often a problem to buy their favorite magazine or a book of their fancied author. During the fifties the regime started to closely watch over all media information passed forward to Czechoslovak citizens. The Central Press Supervision Office was established to control newspaper, magazines, television and radio broadcasting, screenplays, theater productions and even maps and postcards through precensorship. Citizens were constantly persuaded by the media that the communist regime is the best one and therefore every citizen should support the policy of the Communist party. The television broadcasting started in Czechoslovakia in 1953, but its reach was extended slowly over the territory. The basic net of transmitters was completed in 1961, when the broadcasting incidentally reached the number of one million concessionaires. During the sixties the TV became an increasingly more popular form of spending leisure time and its viewers balanced the number of radio listeners. In the time of Prague spring the media distinctively supported policy of Dubček’s communist leadership. People learned important information about actual political situation from the media. During August 1968 the media also informed people about the Warsaw pact forces invasion. During normalization the media were under control of the communist party and supported its home and foreign policy. From 1970 the TV broadcasted on two channels and the Czechoslovak radio also changed the channel structure, which stayed till the fall of the communist regime.

Sviatok a jeho inštitucionalizácia v období socializmu (1948-1989) ako nástroj politického marketingu

Author(s): Zuzana Beňušková / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

Human collectives tend to divide time between everyday time and the time of the festivities. The feasts have special meaning for them, which is accented by making rituals. A sophisticated system of festivities was created in the ancient empires. The Church decided what the life of the Christian people should look like during festivities and in consequence partly uniformed their living. The representatives of the forming modern national states took control over the festivities during the modern period as a part of the fight for deconsecration. During the time of socialism the festivities became a battlefield of the furious fight between the communist ideology and religion. Secular and national values were thoughtfully linked to the socialist state and the communist ideology in the new system of festivities. That differentiated them from civilian ceremonies and festivities in Western Europe. Festivities with its ritualized representation introduced by state functioned as tools to internalize socialist values and norms and in the same to vent emotions. The new system of festivities was conveniently combined with the holiday and the system of citizen ceremoniousness oriented on the human life cycle was created. In the conditions of the socialist system some people completely refused them, some adapted them in various ways to their own needs, some got around them and some accepted them completely. The religious ceremonies existed at the same time. The duality of the official ceremonies with informal ceremonies created a three part model typical mostly for the 1970s and 1980s. But even the religious ceremonies are not resistant to change and adjust to present needs of their participants.

Odborové rekreace v Československu v padesátých a šedesátých letech

Author(s): Alžběta Čornejová / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

This study analyzes the system of union recreations, a popular way of spending leisure time before 1989. It also focuses on the pioneer camps, which in mass numbers provided recreation in the countryside for children. The introduction also mentions the ways of care and support provided to the laborers by the Nazi regime, either through the Kraft durch Freude organization in the 1930s or the so called Heydrich recreational action in the time of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The beginnings of the collectively spent holidays are connected to the immediate post-war period. In May 1945 the Central Union Council (ÚRO) became the main union institution authorized to take under its control all existing union associations and federations in the Czech countries. The first vacationers left for their holiday roughly during the same time. This was not one of the massive organized events; the vacationers were previous prisoners from concentration camps and Nazi penitentiaries. The organisation changed qualitatively and quantitatively after February 1948, when Central recreational department, later Central administration of recreational care ROH started to attend to everything connected to holiday. At the same time three basic types of a vacation were created: centrally operated and selected recreation (native or abroad), company vacation and since 1955 pioneer (child) recreation. The focus on the deserved rest after work became an important and constant part of the official propaganda. Recreations turned into a very desired article. More requested were the so called selected recreations, which were based on a number of properties, for example hotels confiscated from previous German owners or so called collaborators and traitors. New recreational facilities were constructed and vacations abroad were very popular since the sixties. The ideological under-meaning of the union organized vacation gradually dissipated and the collective cheap vacation remained. Smaller company chalets outfitted modestly were quite familiar to employees and their families. Pioneer camps helped the parents (especially mothers, whose employment rate rose considerably) to deal with a relatively long time of the school holidays. The union recreations remain till this day to a well known phenomenon of the previous regime. It was a cheap alternative to the vacation and for many people remained to be a sole opportunity to travel abroad. The theme of the recreations is getting more interesting every day, it is maybe caused by the evident nostalgia coming from many TV programmes.

(Ne)oficiální kulturní aktivity mládeže v Československu v období tzv. normalizace

Author(s): Miroslav Vaněk / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

The fall of the regime in 1989 was of course caused by many factors - external (western pressure, M. S. Gorbachev in the role of the General Secretary of the USSR) and internal (economics, environment, opposition). The coming of the new youth generation in the 1980s was also an important internal factor. After many years it was a generation not afflicted and traumatized by living through the events of 1968 (but also 1938 or 1948). The term “youth” did not acquire its new meaning, it was comprehended as a specific entity, but also something that is advisable to keep under control. Democratic, authoritative and totalitarian regimes boasted about their best intentions and care not only for children, but also for young people. Politicians accepted their existence, but at the same time drew the lines for their activities, strictly watched and organized by real adults. The Czechoslovak communist regime was perfectly aware of the potential “threat” of the free time. Till its fall and depending on the situation it tried in the name of so called “battle for juvenils” to hold back and fight the activities of youths. During the 1980s the regime was short-winded in its campaign and was forced to relieve the pressure somewhere. The youth took the opportunity and their new activities could be pointed out as the seeds of the new civil society. They themselves understood them as “freedom islands” that helped them survive the pre-revolution regime. Young environmentalists, punk fans, new wave fans (and rock fans in general), peace activists, young Christians in various groups and slowly forming student activities created a platform ready to support changes coming with the year 1989 and some of them really acted on it. The old regime was not dissolved by the juveniles, but they surely did contribute to the changes not only before 1989 but also after it.

Svazáci a páskové - „jiná“ padesátá léta

Author(s): Jaroslav Pinkas / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

This study applies Alf Lüdtke’s and Thomas Lindenberger’s concept of a wide spectrum of the society’s attitude towards ideological directions into school educational environment. Following the research of Matěj Kotalík, Martin Franc and Jiří Knapík it comprehends two youth groups living in the fifties: Svazarmists and the rebels (in Czech called “Pásci” – it literally means “Belts”), that represent two completely different youth attitudes towards the regime. Phenomenon of the rebels is analysed in this study as independent, in part socially pathological subculture of young people, which shaped itself politically just under the influence of the regime. The political views were often imposed on it. The study also comprehends the representation of the rebels in the film from the 1950s till present day. Didactic application is based on the confrontation of multimedia, utilization of memories depicting life in the rebel gangs and period ideologically influenced cartoons. The theme of nonconformist young people makes it possible to draw the multi-perspective image of the fifties and demonstrate the oppressive actions of the regime on the basis of adequate social and cultural context, call attention to the limitations of these actions and to strategies some youth groups used to avoid these actions.

Každodennost perspektivou školních pramenů

Author(s): Kamil Činátl / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0

The study focuses on the utilization of the methodological concepts of the everydayness in the context of the history education. It uses a didactic concept of the historical mind outlined by Hans-Jürgen Pandel. In the center of attention stand school sources (photography, school memorials, testimonies witnesses, period textbooks), that can bring along testimony to the period everydayness in the school. General reflection is enriched by the illustrative case study derived from the sources of Jan Amos Komenský elementary school in Písek. The selection of the materials also focuses on the period of Stalinism. The methodological procedures which aim to fulfill Curriculum Goals and Objectives are based on concrete examples. School sources have a strong motivational effect on students because of their connection to the place they know. The educational potential of the sources is related also to the connection to the familiar social environment. Thanks to their knowledge of the social mechanisms of the school, they can easily reflect the differences between the actual state and the fifties for example. The study aims to prove that the methodological historiographical innovations connected to concepts of everydayness and historical anthropology can be used in history education as well.

Prameny a literatura

Author(s): Author Not Specified / Language(s): Czech Publication Year: 0