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Minority Rights in Democratic Transition: The Case of Bulgaria

Minority Rights in Democratic Transition: The Case of Bulgaria

Author(s): Kamelia Dimitrova / Language(s): English / Issue: 01/2004

"In the post-communist transitions in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), few issues have been as contentious as minority relations in multiethnic states". Although nothing has done more to prove the validity of this statement than the dissolution of Yugoslavia, this paper will look at the complexity of minority relations at another East European state. Bulgaria's approach to the grand puzzle of democracy in a multiethnic state presents a case of interest for a number of reasons. For one, only five years since the end of the campaigns of its notorious minority rights violations, Bulgaria managed to produce an ethnic model that won the epithet "an island of stability peace in the region". However, while the international community and the political leaders of Bulgaria's largest minority spare no praise for Bulgaria's achievements, a closer look at the "island of stability" reveals that ethnic and religious minorities group continuously suffer discrimination and ill treatment.

The EU and its Neighbors: In Search of New Forms of Partnership

The EU and its Neighbors: In Search of New Forms of Partnership

Author(s): Iris Kempe / Language(s): English / Issue: 04/2008

Keywords: ENP; Enlargement; reform; Russia

Learning from its experience with the eastern enlargement, the European Union developed a neighborhood policy aware of the need to avoid the creation of a new dividing line in Europe that might put a strain on the relations between the new member states and other countries of the Central and Eastern Europe that would border the new EU. In the light of changes that occurred over time, especially Russia’s resurgence as not only a regional, but a global power, the author points out the obvious shortcomings of the EU’s policy and why it failed to meet the expectations of both the countries encompassed by the policy, and the EU. In addition, the author gives an overview of the changes to the neighborhood policy proposed by the EU member states and, finally, points out the importance of devising a coherent strategy towards the region that would yield long-term results.

The Unemployment in Macedonia: Challenges for a Real Accession and Integration Policy of the EU

Die Arbeitslosigkeit in Mazedonien: Herausforderungen für eine reale Beitritts- und Integrationspolitik der EU

Author(s): Stefan Pavleski / Language(s): German / Issue: 1/2012

Keywords: Mazedonien; Arbeitslosigkeit; Wirtschaftsentwicklung; Beschäftigungspolitik; EU; EU-Beitritt; Integrationspolitik; wirtschaftliche Integration; Wirtschaftspolitik; unemployment; Macedonia; European Union

THE IMPACT OF THE SOLVENCY II PROCESS OF THE INSURANCE FIELD IN ROMANIA

THE IMPACT OF THE SOLVENCY II PROCESS OF THE INSURANCE FIELD IN ROMANIA

Author(s): Daniela-Nicoleta Sahlian,Georgiana Oana Stanilă,Adriana Duţescu / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2008

Keywords: fair value; adequation of capital; solvency margin; risk management; provisions for risk; Solvency II

Insurance companies and banks are of great importance to the economy, which is why their stability must be ensured. In order to prevent bankruptcies in the financial sector, these companies are subject to strict regulations, which set standards for risk management and the amount of reserve capital required. Such capital reserves act as safety buffers to protect the customers from extraordinary events. In the insurance industry, the reserve capital is referred to as the solvency margin. The purpose of this paper is to present the evolution of prudential regulations for insurance sector and explain how the Solvency II framework (in line with the developments of IAS/IFRS) will affect risk management in the Romanian insurance industry, and whether these changes can result in opportunities for insurers. This is achieved by studying the new regulations and conducting a number of interviews with insurance company representatives as well as industry experts. A final consideration of impacts and developments provides a few recommendations and suggestions for regulators and insurances.

Regulating Internal Protection Alternative as the Element of Refugee Definition in the EU Directive 2004/83/EC and its Recast Proposal

Vidinės apsaugos alternatyvos kaip pabėgėlio sąvokos elemento reglamentavimas ES direktyvoje 2004/83/EB ir jos pakeitimo pasiūlyme

Author(s): Laurynas Biekša / Language(s): Lithuanian / Issue: 3/2011

Keywords: asylum; refugee definition; internal protection alternative; Qualification Directive; EC directive 2004/83/EC recast proposal

Internal protection alternative (further—IPA) as the element of refugee definition is interpreted very differently in the practice of the State Parties to the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (further—Geneva Convention). Thus it is important to regulate this concept clearly in the EC directive 2004/83/ EB (further—Qualification directive) and its coming amendments. The definition of the IPA concept does not contain adequate criteria for assessing the level and effectiveness of protection required, in line with the Geneva Convention and the ECHR, thus allowing Member States to reject claims and return applicants to their country of origin despite the lack of effective protection. Moreover, this concept is defined in a broad and vague manner which creates a risk of diverse recognition practices. The Commission Recast Proposal for Qualification Directive should solve most of the identified problems regarding Art. 8(1). Firstly, it specifies the IPA test-making reference to the Art. 7 criteria (i.e., operating an effective legal system for the detection, prosecution and punishment of acts constituting persecution or serious harm). Secondly, it also specifies the IPA test making reference to the Salah Sheekh v. Netherlands judgment criteria (i.e., he or she can safely and legally travel, gain admittance and settle). Thirdly, it deletes the word “stay,” which could suggest a backward view contrary to the Geneva Convention. One more important element of the IPA test should be added in order to facilitate less divergent Member States’ practice based on full and inclusive interpretation and application of the Geneva Convention, i.e. the requirement to assess whether the applicant can reasonably be expected to live in the IPA place in line with the UNHCR guidelines so as to ensure that the person concerned can lead a relatively normal life there, without undue hardship. However, the Commission does not include this element in its Recast Proposal for Qualification Directive for political reasons (as introducing “new,” additional restrictions to the use of the concept might meet resistance from the Member States).

A comparison of the systems of education of special pedagogy in Polish and Slovak higher schools

Porównanie systemów kształcenia pedagogów specjalnych w polskich i słowackich szkołach wyższych

Author(s): Stefan Vasek,Alexandra Kastelova / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 32 (1)/2009

Keywords: comparative pedagogy; comparative special pedagogy; evaluation of the system of education; educational systems of special pedagogues

The article aims at comparing the systems of education of special pedagogy in higher schools. The comparison that was made involved the curricula al within the scope of special pedagogy in the countries in question from the point of view of the elements of the contents in teaching plans. Also the differences between an organization and the profile of an education system were pointed out – the system, nature and type of studies in a selected Polish and Slovak higher education institution.

CONVENTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PREOCCUPATIONS

CONVENTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PREOCCUPATIONS

Author(s): Claudia Andriţoi / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2011

Keywords: the principle of precaution; globalization; cultural patrimony; natural patrimony; international ecological order

A great number of the conventions referring to nature, even if they do not refer ton particular species, were limited from the point of view of geography and territories: we may give as example here a convention for the protection of flora, fauna and panoramic beauties of America, the African convention for nature and natural resources… By the Stockholm conferences, from the 5th of June 1972, we entered in a “dynamic of globalization”. Article 1 of the Declaration that followed the conference is important for the global awareness: “Human beings have the basic right for freedom, equality and conditions of a satisfying life, in an environment with a quality that allows him to live with dignity and well being. He has the solemn duty to protect and improve the environment for the present and future generations (…)”. This article proclaims a right for the environment. A new law seems to have arisen with the apparition of this convention: the right of a healthy human being and of a healthy environment. This law is bipolar because it associates the human beings to nature. Human beings have the right to live in a healthy environment and this is why he has to protect nature. This does not represent a right of the human beings from a strict point of view. This is a right that has a universal value. The right to a healthy environment can not be put in the same category as the right to live or the right to be healthy, because this right contains the latter.

REFORMING THE EUROPEAN SOCIO-ECONOMIC POLICY AFTER THE FINANCIAL CRISIS

REFORMAREA POLITICII SOCIO-ECONOMICE EUROPENE CA URMARE A CRIZEI FINANCIARE

Author(s): Letitia Corina MATAREA-TÜRK / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 3/2012

Keywords: Social innovation; social entrepreneurship; Europe 2020; financial crisis.

Rising unemployment, increasing poverty, more marginalized young people and a growing number of senior citizens – these are just some of the social challenges that the European Union will be facing in the future, challenges that have been hardly aggravated by the current economic crisis. In this context, the promotion of social innovation and social entrepreneurship seems to be a new and effective way to address these problems. Not through a reduction in public tasks and core services, but through new frameworks and solutions that mobilize already existing resources in the local communities. This article first provides an overview of the problems the European Union is currently confronting with as a consequence of the economic crisis. Secondly, it frames the discussion about the changes and perspectives of social innovation around the core political initiatives brought about the European Commission to reform the European Social Model. Nonetheless, it stresses the importance of the Europe 2020 strategy and the need to forcefully implement it including through more social investment, social innovation and social economy.

Legal opinion on the conscience clause for doctors, pharmacists and nurses in Italian law.

Opinia prawna na temat klauzuli sumienia lekarzy, farmaceutów oraz pielęgniarek w prawie włoskim.

Author(s): Jolanta Waszczuk-Napiórkowska / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 3/2012

Keywords: Poland; conscience clause; Italy; medicine; abortion;

The object of this paper is to provide an opinion on the regulation of conscience clause in relation to doctors, nurses and pharmacists under Italian law. The opinion was based on the legislative texts available on the websites of the Italian government and the Ministry of Health. Conscience clause is governed by Article 9 of Legge 22 maggio 1978, Norme per la tutela sociale della maternità e sull’interruzione volontaria della gravidanza (Legge 194/1978), under which a doctor or nurse may refuse to provide and participate in carrying out abortions, should they submit a statement – subject to Article 5(3). Conscience clause is governed by Article 16 of Legge 19 febbraio 2004, n.40 standard in materia di procreazione medicalmente assistita (Law 40/2004), under which a doctor or nurse may refuse to participate in medical procedures and assisted conception treatments.

Internationalization of companies from the service sector in Bulgaria

Интернационализация на фирмите от сферата на услугите в България

Author(s): Tania Gorcheva,Ivaylo Petrov,Zdravko Lubenov / Language(s): Bulgarian / Issue: 15/2011

The process of internationalization in services is a new socio-economic phenomenon, a present topic that is still not enough researched. Services are be­coming an important component of the expanded reproduction in the national eco­nomy. This sector is seen as a “generator” of economic growth, so its impor­tance in the economies of individual countries is steadily increasing. Important issue for Bulgaria is how the country could earn better from the concurrent deve­lopment of two processes - increasing internationalization and the rising role of services. Therefore the objective of the research project is to discover the main aspects in the practice of companies in the Bulgarian services sector. The object of the study is the effects of processes of internationalization on Bulgarian companies. Essential features of internationalization in services are described. An assessment of options for its implementation in practice of local and foreign companies in this sector has been made.

THE INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGE OF JURISDICTIONAL RESOLUTIONS REGARDING THE HUMAN RIGHT TO SOCIAL SECURITY

LA IMPUGNACIÓN INTERNACIONAL DE RESOLUCIONES JURISDICCIONALES EN MATERIA DEL DERECHO HUMANO A LA SEGURIDAD SOCIAL

Author(s): Moreno Ángel Guillermo Ruiz,Buenrostro Ángel Edoardo Ruiz / Language(s): Spanish / Issue: 3 (36)/2017

Keywords: Generic social protection; social security; human rights; social justice; international treaties; applicable international standards.

In this globalized world at all levels, one of the demands most deeply felt bythe public is certainly the unrestricted respect for human rights by the State, and in case oftheir eventual failure to comply for any reason, to ensure an efficient administration of justicethat guarantees such rights in all time and place. The constant discretionality by the publicpowers in their full respect, as well as the way to interpret the scope of social security, in factdoes very little to generate a genuine culture of social security; on top of everything, amongthe least studied and known human rights. That complicated structural problem, if it is notpossible to properly address before domestic courts, must be controlled through theeveryday use of legal defense mechanisms enshrined in international treaties, turning up tointernational institutions and laws if necessary

Linguistic aspects of the language policy of the Second Polish Republic in relation to the Ukrainian minority in 1918-1939 in Eastern Galicia (ethnonyms and glotopimy)

Aspekty lingwistyczne polityki językowej II RP w stosunku do mniejszości ukraińskiej 1918–1939 w Galicji Wschodniej (etnonimy i glottonimy)

Author(s): Katarzyna Hibel / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 2/2011

Keywords: Polish language; Modern Ukrainian Language; Ruthenian; ethnonyms; glottonyms;

The interwar period was crucial for the development of Polish–Ukrainian relations in the following decades. Political commentaries, studies in linguistics, social sciences, and legislative acts from this period reflect the changes of Polish attitudes towards the Ukrainian minority. In the late 1920s and 1930s, the traditional and exonymic terminology Rusin and ruski was gradually replaced by the new forms Ukrainiec and ukraiński.

Adaptation of repatriates from France to the communist reality of the Polish People’s Republic in 1945–1954

Adaptacja reemigrantów z Francji do komunistycznej rzeczywistości w Polsce Ludowej w latach 1945–1954

Author(s): Aneta Nisiobędzka / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 79/2018

Keywords: adaptation; repatriation from France; mining; peasants; salaries; housing conditions; surveillance;

The article focuses on, undiscussed so far in the literature on the subject, the adaptive processes of the Poles who came from France to Stalinist Poland, and their confrontation with the reality of Stalinist Poland. An important influence on the studied adaptation problems was exerted by the question of adequacy of principles of communist repatriation policy and its promises of professional promotion made to Polish workers in relation to the actual situation in the country. The chronological scope of the study is from the end of the war to the year 1954 when, after Stalin’s death and the escape of Józef Światło, there was a “thaw” in actions of security services within the communities of repatriates.The article presents motives of the Poles deciding to stay in France or leave it for Poland, and then a confrontation of their ideas about the conditions of life in People’s Poland. The following part discusses the attitudes, behaviour, and customs of repatriates settled in Upper and Lower Silesia, and questions related to the surveillance of the repatriate community by the Security Office, at variance with propagandist assumptions of repatriate policy of the Polish People’s Republic.

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ON FRAUD AND MONEY LAUNDERING IN THE ENERGY SECTOR

CADRUL LEGISLATIV PRIVIND FRAUDA ȘI SPĂLAREA BANILOR ÎN SECTORUL ENERGETIC

Author(s): Irina Petronela Șargu / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 38/2019

Keywords: legislation; fraud; money laundering; energy;

Today's leaders, whether they work in the public or private sector, are not faced with a lack of challenges. We are often told and with great certainty that the consequences are tough for ignoring any challenge. Issues to be addressed include embarrassing economies, rising terrorism, the spread of pandemics, the warming planet, and online attacks against confidential information. We can not give equal attention to all these things, but we can figure out how they are connected. Understanding how and why the issues are related helps us find solutions that will have the greatest impact.

Maritime Situational Awareness and its Development Possibilities in the Republic of Estonia

MEREOLUKORRATEADLIKKUS JA SELLE TÄIUSTAMISVÕIMALUSED EESTIS

Author(s): Sven Sargma / Language(s): Estonian / Issue: 11/2019

Keywords: maritime surveillance; seapower; security; safety; command and control; case study;

The article covers the possibilities for improving maritime situational awareness in the Republic of Estonia and is based on the author’s Master’s thesis “Maritime situational awareness and its development possibilities based on the example of authorities engaged in maritime surveillance”, which was defended in the Estonian Academy of Security Sciences in June 2018. The thesis was awarded the scholarship for defence-related Master’s theses by the Estonian Ministry of Defence in December 2017. The research was designed within the framework of case study research strategy as an embedded single case design case study. A query, document analysis and semi-structured interviews were used as methods for data collection to achieve the research objectives. The method of analysis used was qualitative content analysis and it was conducted using the qualitative data analysis software NVivo 11 Pro. First, the theoretical chapter explains the incentives for forming maritime situational awareness, the historical-theoretical development of the respective field and its role within the Estonian Maritime Defence Model. The second, empirical chapter, charts the organizational-institutional aspects which inhibit the improvement of maritime situational awareness in the Republic of Estonia. According to the first chapter, the necessity for a coastal state to develop maritime situational awareness comes from the need and obligation to enforce sovereignty over its maritime domain. To accomplish this goal, the opaqueness covering the maritime domain must be reduced by combining different sources of maritime situational awareness. A coastal state must have the capability to: gather information from all possible, relevant sources; to analyze the gathered information; and to process it into a suitable form and distribute it to the decision makers. To be more successful in maritime activities than possible adversaries, the information for decision-making and the situational awareness must be of excellent quality and at the same time defended against hostile influences across the Maritime Defence Model. The conclusions described in the first chapter were used for designing the empirical research. In the second chapter, the directions for improving the maritime situational awareness in the Republic of Estonia were determined based on the analysis of query results, strategy documents and expert interviews. These directions where: improvement of gathering and distribution of information required for maritime situational awareness and better coordination of respective flow of information between agencies; the enhancement of information systems used for creating maritime situational awareness; improvement of policy and decision makers’ understanding of the respective field; better regulation of the field; increasing the survivability of the systems used for creating maritime situational awareness; and mapping the inter-agency needs for exchange of information used for achieving maritime situational awareness. The possibility of creating a separate organization for management of corresponding systems and infrastructure and the need for creating a joint maritime situational awareness center should be considered.

FULL PROTECTION AND SECURITY STANDARD IN INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT LAW

FULL PROTECTION AND SECURITY STANDARD IN INTERNATIONAL INVESTMENT LAW

Author(s): Orsat Miljenić / Language(s): English / Issue: 3-4/2019

Keywords: standard of full protection and security; international investment law; international investment arbitration; due diligence of the recipient countries of investment;

The subject of the study is the analysis of the application of the Standard of Full Protection and Security of Foreign Investments in international arbitrarily practice. It is an absolute standard that is contained in almost all international investment agreements and that has been established through arbitration practice, regardless of the variety of language expressions referred to in investment agreements. The objects of protection under this Standard can be both investors and investments and it establishes a dual obligation for the states. On the one hand, there is the obligation of active action to prevent and remedy a violation or to punish perpetrators, and on the other hand, there is the obligation to refrain from any activities that may hurt foreign investment. This paper deals in particular with the three issues that are decisive for the application of the Standard in practice. The first is the issue of the relationship between this Standard and other standards of protection of foreign investments, in particular the Standard of Fair and Equitable Treatment, as well as to the minimum standard of protection enjoyed by foreign investors and their investment under international customary law. The second is the issue of standard content, whether it applies only to physical protection and security, or includes wider, legal protection and regulatory protection, security and stability. The third question relates to the degree of protection and security, i.e. whether this Standard implies the objective liability of the host country or whether it has to deal with due diligence, depending on the circumstances of each case. The paper analyses all publicly available decisions of international arbitration tribunals as well as scientific literature dealing with this Standard and points out the prevailing attitudes about these three key issues as well as their implications for the protection of foreign investments.

Terrorist Threat with Improvised Explosive Device (IED) in the Marine Environment and its Effects on Maritime Security

Deniz Ortamında El Yapımı Patlayıcı Düzenek (EYPD)’ler Genelinde Terörist Tehditler ve Deniz Güvenliğine Etkileri

Author(s): Murat Kağan Kozanhan,İbrahim Bayezit / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 34/2020

Keywords: Maritime Security; Maritime İmprovised Explosive Device; Maritime Terrorism; Counter Maritime IED; Maritime Situational Awareness;

War Ships and as the backbone of the world’s seaborne trade, merchant ships may be subject to similar threats of Maritime IEDs. From a maritime security perspective, the best way to increase situational awareness at seas and ports is to assess the current threats and to foresee future ones.When the methods used by terrorist organizations are examined, it is seen that the Maritime IED attacks are not the daily threats due to the characteristics of the marine environment, but the losses and loss of life could be big if this threat is ignored. As a result of the successful attacks carried out by terrorist organizations, it was understood that they have been working on improving themselves in maritime attacks. Thus, the activities carried out by terrorist organizations should be closely monitored and necessary precautions must be taken, especially as they may have negative effects on commercial maritime traffic.In this study, general information about the “Maritime Security” is given and the concept of Maritime IED is explained in detail. The new Maritime IED’s which are encountered in the maritime environment was examined. In the light of these maritime IED’s and the developing maritime technologies, was tried to find answers to what kind of Maritime IED’s could be encountered in the future.

Discourse analysis of the Legislative Framework of the European Union on Circular economy

Diskurzivna analiza zakonodavnog okvira Europske unije o cirkularnoj ekonomiji

Author(s): Valentino Petrović / Language(s): Croatian / Issue: 1/2020

Keywords: cirkularna ekonomija; Europska unija; direktiva 2018/851 o otpadu; Kina; policy; analiza diskursa; issue framing

Dosadašnja istraživanja o razvoju cirkularne ekonomije u Europskoj uniji većim su djelom bila usmjerena na prednosti implementacije takvoga modela koje se najčešće dijele na okolišne i ekonomske. Ovaj će rad analizirati diskurs o cirkularnoj ekonomiji s drugačijeg gledišta, onoga kojemu je u središtu ljudsko zdravlje kao presudan faktor. Na temelju toga, pokušat će se odgovoriti na dva pitanja; kako su se mijenjali prioriteti i diskurs unutar zakonodavnog okvira Europske unije kada je riječ o cirkularnoj ekonomiji, te kako osvijestiti aktere da prilagode svoje ponašanje i djelovanje okolišnim normama. U analizi se koriste metode analize teksta i diskursa, kojima će se adresirati dosadašnja literatura i dokumenti Europske unije, prvenstveno paketi mjera o cirkularnoj ekonomiji, akcijski plan iz 2015. godine i novousvojene direktive. Ujedno, iskorištena je komparativna metoda za usporedbu ‘starih’ i ‘novih’ direktiva, odnosno diskursa u Europskoj uniji i Kini, te posljednja metoda, intervju s Davorom Škrlecom, bivšim zastupnikom u europskom parlamentu i članom Kluba zastupnika Zelenih/europskog slobodnog saveza. Rezultati su pokazali da je svaki novi paket Europske unije bio kvalitativno precizniji, ali da se sa stajališta ciljeva izlazilo u susret implementacijskim kapacitetima država članica. Na kraju, oblikovao se zasebni diskurs o cirkularnoj ekonomiji za čiju je sustavnu provedbu ipak nužno u središte postaviti pitanje zdravlja.

Perception on the Roma Minority in the Romanian Society. From Serfdom to Emancipation

Percepții asupra minorității rome în societatea românească. De la robie la emancipare

Author(s): Daniela Albu / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 2/2021

Keywords: slavery; manumission; Roma ethnicity; minorities’ rights; diversity; traditions; discrimination; stereotypes; policies; strategies; international recommendations;

Although 165 years have passed since the Roma community was liberated by law, prejudices and hostility towards it have not been fully eradicated, perhaps precisely because throughout history stereotypes and negative perceptions of the Roma have remained deeply rooted in the collective consciousness, being transmitted from one generation to another in Romanian society. The racial concept of “gypsy delinquency and crime” that has emerged and circulated since the time of slavery continues to be perpetuated as the main justification for anti-Roma racism, although the Roma ethnic group has lived with the majority population for centuries, its members considering themselves both Roma and Romanians who fought in the two wars for the defence of the country. Discourses on tolerance and acceptance risk to fall into the trap of positive discrimination because the collective mind is in fact the one that must understand and respect the values of the cohabiting minorities. Much remains to be done for the integration of Roma at the legislative level, as well as at the level of perceptions, mentalities and thinking patterns of a society, which cannot evolve without tolerance and acceptance of ethnic and cultural diversity.

Polish space law – challenges and trade-offs

Polskie prawo kosmiczne – wyzwania i kompromisy

Author(s): Mariusz Tomasz Kłoda,Katarzyna Malinowska,Bartosz Malinowski,Małgorzata Polkowska / Language(s): English,Polish / Issue: 3/2022

Keywords: Polish space law;Polish act on space activities; liability for space damage;space insurance;delimitation of outer space

The paper was prepared by members of the Task Force for Polish Space Law operating at the Centre for Space Studies, Kozminski University in Warsaw. The purpose of this paper was to examine the challenges associated with the adoption of a national space legislation, including an analysis of the position of professionals and entrepreneurs active in the Polish space sector on the content of future Polish legislation on space activities. The authors were tasked with presenting the essential issues of Polish regulation of space activity, i.e. its subject and scope, including establishing the spatial scope of statutory regulation and addressing the issue of liability for damage and insurance of such liability. The analysis was conducted both from the perspective of the formal foundations of national legislation on space exploration, which is supposed to reflect the international obligations of the country in this area, and from the perspective of the interests of all stakeholders who bear the main burden of carrying out this risky activity.