Az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia etnoregionalista átszervezésének tervezete
Aurél Popovici terve 1906
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Aurél Popovici terve 1906
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When the undefeated samurai Miyamoto Musashi retreated to a cave in 1643 and wrote The Book of Five Rings, a manifesto on swordsmanship, strategy, and winning for his students and generations of samurai to come, he created one of the most perceptive and incisive texts on strategic thinking ever to come from Asia. Musashi gives timeless advice on defeating an adversary, throwing an opponent off-guard, creating confusion, and other techniques for overpowering an assailant that will resonate with both martial artists and everyone else interested in skillfully dealing with conflict. For Musashi, the way of the martial arts was a mastery of the mind rather than simply technical prowess—and it is this path to mastery that is the core teaching in The Book of Five Rings. Written not only for martial artists but for anyone who wants to apply the timeless principles of this text to their life, the book analyzes the process of struggle and mastery over conflict that underlies every level of human interaction.
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The book studies the Ancient Egyptian religion. The author describes the creation and its driving forces through the view of Egyptian concepts. The idea of God and the divine manifestations, the place of man in the world and the ways to achieve immortality are explored. The exposition is based on the study of ancient hieroglyphic texts and is illustrated with numerous examples. The book is intended for a wide range of readers who are interested in the religion and culture of Ancient Egypt. It contains three chapters: the world of gods, the creation of the world and the world of men. Special attention is paid on the concept of the kingship in Ancient Egypt. The Egyptian terminology and the names of gods and goddesses are formed as a dictionary at the еnd of the book.
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The period between the Battle of Kosovo (1389) and the formation of the eyelets of Buda (1541) and Temesvár (1552) was marked by the breakthrough of the Ottomans in the Danube region and their struggle with Serbia (until 1459) and Hungary to master this area. It is also the medieval period richest in sources for the study of social and economic history and historical geography of the Serbian Podunavlje and Posavina (the Danube and the Sava region). This paper presents a review of previous research on this issue, points out the main historical sources and problems that they put in front of researchers and presents the latest research results, in part resulting from the author’s research. The „land” (zemlja) in medieval Serbia was greater territorial and administrative unit, which included several župas (districts). In the area of northern Serbia, in Posavina, there was the “land” of Mačva, and in Podunavlje the “land” of Kučevo and Braničevo. More recent studies have defined the borders of specified areas and corrected earlier misconceptions about the propagation of the Hungarian government in northwestern Serbia in the late Middle Ages, caused by equalizing the Mačva “land” and the Hungarian Banat of Mačva (Macsó). The Hungarian Banat of Mačva was at that time confined to a narrow area next to the Sava with several fortresses and their districts. By change in the Hungarian-Serbian relations in the first half of 15th century, these regions were connected to the Serbian state until the Ottoman conquest in 1458/1459. Kučevo, which expanded between the rivers Velika Morava, Danube, Jasenica and the mountains of Avala and Kosmaj, was in administrative terms united with the “land” of Braničevo. However, during the 14th and the 15th century Kučevo survived as a particular geographical area. Comparing the data on settlements provided by Serbian charters with material from the Ottoman censuses – defters, one can get a picture of their continuity and discontinuity, which indirectly indicates depopulation during the warfare that led to the collapse of the Serbian state. Such research in the area of Braničevo shows that half of the villages of Braničevo completely lost their inhabitants during the Ottoman subjugation of Serbia. The comparison of the data of the medieval and Ottoman sources also showed a kind of continuity in economic centres – market places in the area of Braničevo. The Ottoman defters have shown that there were a large number of settlements in the Serbian Danube and the Sava region in the second half of the 15th and the first decades of the 16th century, but they were mostly small. Archaeological excavations provide valuable findings on the appearance of the settlements and way of life in the Danube and the Sava region. The Ottoman defters provide the insight into the economic structure in rural settlements during the second half of the 15th and early 16 century. The defters enable to obtain a relatively accurate picture of the proportional representation of crops in total production. On this basis, it may be noted that wheat was grown most of all the cereals (about 35%), followed by barley, rye, millet, oats. Among other crops, in addition to growing fruits and vegetables, followed by flax and hemp, vine was grown to a large extent.
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The paper discusses peoples who lived on the territory of Bulgar Ulus of the Golden Horde in 13th—14th centuries, which can be proven by archaeological sources. Thus, these data suggest that along with the Bulgar this territory was populated by the Russians, Mordvins, Mari, Armenians, and part of this territory was occupied by the Kipchaks and, probably, by the Mongols, who settled there after their military raids. All these peoples closely interacted between themselves. At the same time, there were also some small local ethnic groups, such as the Permians and the Udmurts, who managed to preserve their identity. As a whole, Bulgar Ulus of the Golden Horde was multiethnic, which continued the tradition formed before the Mongol invasion.
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The article is devoted to the administrative-territorial structure of the political center of a Golden Horde region (vilayet) known as Sarai, which was located in the Delta of the Volga River. Research history of the largest towns and their environs is discussed. The administrative units are characterized in accordance with the chronology of historical events. The life span of the settlements and the stages in their development are determined through analysis and comparison of archaeological, numismatic and written data. The process of urbanization in the region is linked to the changes in the level of the Caspian Sea. Suggestions are made about the location of the first capital of Jochi Ulus (the city of Sarai) and the name of Krasny Yar town.
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The article analyzes materials of the Kumo-Manych expedition, 1860—1861, that allow you to specify the localization of the Gashun-Usta stow on the territory of the Stavropol Governorate. In 1890, the expedition found a belt garniture and a belt-bowl, dated by Mengu-Timur’s time.The Gashun-Usta stow is localized in the vicinity of the Basanta village, Arzgirsky district, Stavropol region in the basin of the Chogray river (North-Eastern slopes of the Stavropol Upland), known for its numerous burials of the Golden Horde. It was the area for summer and winter pastures of the medieval nomads, and it can be associated with G. de Rubruk’s accounts on Bеrke’s encampments.
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The author reviews places where Polovtsian stone sculptures were found on the territory of the Kuban steppe and Eastern Trans-Kuban. First statues were delivered to the Museum in the late nineteenth century, and are still delivered nowadays. Before the revolution, there was no regular reporting about original locations of such finds. In 1950s — early 21st century, statues were brought from villages located on the territory of the Central steppe area in the middle Kuban area and Eastern Trans-Kuban. Finds of the Polovtsian stone sculptures are a valuable source on the geography of the Polovtsian nomadic camps in the Kuban basin.
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Settlements located in the North-Eastern Azov and Lower Don basin are of great interest for the study of trade and economic relations in 13th—14th cc. both with the center of the region, which was the Azak, and between rural sites. During the analysis of the material obtained from the settlements, it is possible to determine the nature of the settlement: whether it was a small town or a rural center, as well as to imagine the degree of involvement of each settlement in trade activities, and to give an overall picture of the development of commodity relations in the region.
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The article represents an analysis of the Golden Horde sites situated on the right bank of Lower Volga, which have been large urban settlements in the Middle Ages: Uvekskoe, Vodyanskoe, Mechetnoe fortified settlements, Ternovskoe fortified and open settlements. At the present time these settlements are completely or considerably destroyed, which makes us turn mainly to the research materials from the 19th — early 20th century. Basing on the analysis and correlation of archaeological, numismatic and written sources and urban planning, the author presents the topography of the settlements, main archaeological complexes (fortifications, living and household facilities, burials) and determines the time period and stages in development of these localities.
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The author studies sites of Golden Horde time found in the south-eastern part of Ukraine. The nature and climate of this region has three zones: Seversky Donets, Donetsky Kryazh and the Azov region. Different natural environment in these zones conditioned peculiar features of sites located here. In the steppes in Donetsky Kryazh, with their nomad population, the sites represent some barrow necropolises, seasonal camps and some individual finds. The Azov coast, along with sites left by the nomads, yields some stationary settlements, most of which emerged in the second half of 14th c. One of them had an adjacent ground necropolis (Lyapinskaya Balka). The steppe also yields burials of nomad elite, including Muslim ones (the stone from Guselshchikovo). The largest and most typical sites are located in the middle stream of the Seversky Donets (camps, small and large settlements, ground and barrow necropolises). A group of settlements with pseudo Early Russian ceramics had existed there from the previous time period. Next to some of these, some large Golden Horde centers emerge in 14th c. (at village Maiaki and town Raygorodok). It is noteworthy that both groups of settlements coexist in the middle stream of the Seversky Donets during the whole of the Golden Horde time.The rise on the considered territory dates to the second half of 14th c. With the fall of Mamay and accession of Tokhtamysh to power, the region lost its importance. The ultimate desolation of these lands started after the western territories of the Golden Horde had been devastated by Tamerlane in 1395.
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The author publishes a Turkish navigation map held by the State Historical Museum (Moscow). It is executed in the manner traditional for the European cartography, yet with Turkish inscriptions using Arabic alphabet. The map shows the Black Sea with its northern, eastern and southern shores (the western part is cut off ), as well as the whole of the Azov Sea. The article minutely studies stylistic features of the map. There is a table with the list of geographic names found on the map (toponyms and hydronyms): the original Turkish spelling and transcription and their respective identifiable modern names.
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The results of the research of hillforts on the territory of Mongolia and the Trans-Baikal (Zabaikalye) region dating back to the time of the Mongol Empire have shown that not all of them can be considered cities. Some of them are palace or manor complexes detached from the settlements. The paper focuses exclusively on sites with undoubted proto-urban or urban status. Among these, first of all, the Karakorum in Mongolia and the Khirkhirin hillfort in the Trans-Baikal region. The history of their research, the features of the sites’ location and layout of urban development, as well as general characteristics of the finds from the cultural layer are reviewed. On the whole, to-date, a large source base about the cities of the Mongol Empire in Mongolia and the Trans-Baikal region has been formed, which allows solving important general problems related to the history and culture of the medieval nomads of Eurasia.
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The researchers’ interest in Majar, a Golden Horde city in the North Caucasus, has become obvious since the 18th century and still exists nowadays. In spite of the existing seemingly extensive historical evidence of the 14th through to 20th centuries, related to the description of the city existence and exploration, there remain quite a number of questions, which attest to the fact that the sources available have not been extensively processed. The combined analysis (not ventured before) of all available written, cartographic and illustrative sources without exception, with the involvement of newly identified ones, alongside with the application of modern GIS technologies, will have a positive effect on the study of the Madjary hillfort site and its practically unstudied environs.
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For long centuries, Slovakia was incorporated into Hungary and, being under the yoke of harsh national oppression, did not constitute a well-defined geographical unit. This is precisely what has given historico-geographical problems a very topical character over the last decades, when in particular the question of the borders between Slovakia and Hungary had a prominent place in political events. . Among Slovak historians, it is above all F. Bokes who has devoted several works to historico-geographical problems. He first sketched an overview of the evolution of the Slovak national territory from the Empire of Great Moravia to the present day and then published, in German, a more detailed study in which he subjected to a thorough analysis certain documentary materials, ^ finally, while limiting itself however to the 19th century, a study accompanied by documentary materials. However, Bokes' conclusions are not always based on a detailed study of the original literature and documents and are limited to justifying, with the help of historical arguments, the borders of Slovakia as they had been fixed by the Treaty. of Trianon.
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Interview with Tomáš Kumpan.
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The parts of the territory with a preserved secondary (economic) landscape structure, originated around the middle of the 19th century, may be considered as existing segments of the pre-industrial landscape. Such territory has retained a similar character of plot distribution and land use of that time. These segments have been pre-identified in the contemporary cultural landscape according to the recent colour orthophotomap. The existence of that cultural heritage has been confirmed or excluded by comparison with the maps of the 2nd military survey and indicating sketches of the cadastral survey from the 1st half of the 19th century. The records were systematically carried out according to the cadastral units of the so-called working regions of Moravia. The segments of the pre-industrial landscape identified in laboratory research then underwent a field research, followed by the determination of their properties and the assessment of the state and the threats.
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The 17 AD Hermus (Gediz) Valley and 105 AD Antiocheia earthquakes are among the biggest earthquakes of the Roman period in terms of both their severity and the human loss they caused. For this reason, the ancient historians provide more detailed information about these earthquakes. Tacitus in his relatively detailed description stated that the 17 BC earthquake caused the destruction of at least 12 large cities along the Hermos River valley, mainly Sardis (Manisa/Salihli) and Magnesia (Manisa), and that Tiberius helped these cities to be restored after the earthquake, including tax exemption. Authors such as Pliny, Strabo, Cassius Dio, Seneca and Velleius Paterculus also provide brief information about this earthquake. Apart from these authors, there are also inscriptions honoring Tiberius for his post-earthquake assistance and numismatic sources as well as archaeological evidence of construction activities. On the other hand, the earthquake of 115 AD Antiocheia was also severe and caused great loss of life and property in the surrounding cities, especially in Antioch. Although the number of ancient authors mentioning this earthquake is few, Cassius Dio makes the most vivid and detailed description of ancient earthquakes about the severity of this earthquake, the loss of life and property and the geographical changes it caused and the topographic damage. Johannes Malalas, who used a local chronicler like Cassius Dio, who probably lived close to the earthquake period, detail the restoration work of Trajan, who experienced the earthquake in the city, in Antioch. The reason for comparing these two earthquakes in this study is that the intensity of both earthquakes and their political and socio-cultural consequences are similar.
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The best education in forestry within the borders of the Habsburg Monarchy foresters could get at the Secondary Forestry School of Mariabrunn. That school was the most significant forestry school in the Monarchy during the 19th century. The school was located in the Augustinian monastery at the Mariabrunn near Vienna. It was partly owned by the state and partly by the Augustinian order. The school was started in 1813, and it got developed from a small specialized school that was founded in 1805. It was a boarding school and expert education was provided for the pupils, including accommodation. The pupils worn uniforms and stern discipline was maintained in the school, which was consistently insisted upon by the principals, who often came from the military. The secondary school consisted of classrooms, laboratories, rooms for the teachers and dormitories for the pupils. From the very inception, the school had the best facilities for the training, and so it got, as early as 1816, a chemistry laboratory, a botanical garden, and a collection of insects and minerals. In the year 1819, the Forestry school in Mariabrunn was officially proclaimed the principal forestry school in the Monarchy. The Secondary Forestry School in Mariabrunn did not get the status of the Academy until 1867, but was considered to be some sort of a secondary specialized school. Only in 1867 it became the Imperial Academy of Forestry with a three-year curriculum. In 1872, the authorities subsumed the Academy of Forestry into the system of the High School for Soil Cultivation in Vienna. From the very beginning, candidates from all over the Monarchy attended the Forestry School in Mariabrunn, and many of the attendants later became excellent foresters. Among the attendants from Croatia, the biggest number came from Slavonia.
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This work is concerned with the treatise of the manorial forester Radošević entitled “Pabirci za šumarsku povijest hrvatsko-srpskih šuma” (A Compilation for the Forest History of Croatian-Serbian Forests) published in Šumarski list during 1891 and 1892. The author provides interesting theses on the origins of oak forests in our regions, which support the claim that “oak forests in Croatia were planted by the Romans for the purpose of feeding pigs with acorns, which was a significant economic activity”. The work also adduces the counterclaim advanced by forest assessor Barišić “that the Romans perhaps afforested some fields with oak” but basically agrees that the oak is not indigenous to our area. The treatise abounds in examples with which the proponents of these stances confirm their views, and at the same time tell of the scholarly methods, knowledge and experiences used by the foresters at the end of the 19th century. In order to gain a clear picture of issues raised by the foresters, we rely on the viewpoints of modern forest professions and other expertise on the subject of the age of oak forests in Croatia.
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