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Using archaeological materials, this article attempts to reveal correlation between society structural levels of each of the Sauromat-Sarmatian cultures and high-status “priestly” burials practices, as well as special artifacts associated with performance of worship cult acts. The results obtained allow us to assume that family-clan cults were widespread during weakening periods of centralized power. The interment of cult worshipers did not require specific practices. Rich priestly complexes with stable sets of sacred inventory appeared during the time of large nomadic group formation and strengthening periods of centralized power. Such burials most commonly belonged to women. The author proposes options of interaction between political and priestly elite and describes mechanisms for raising status of “priestesses” who performed public rituals.
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The proposed article addresses the problem of social reflection of the cult life of the Sarmatians, investigated with the help of archeology and written tradition. In the article, special attention is paid to the concept of priesthood, which is compared with other concepts (healers, fortune-tellers, shamans). There is a practice in the archaeological literature to use a certain set of signs for attributing burials as priestly. Researchers usually refer to priestly burials as female and male burials with extraordinary grave goods. But these burials are more likely to be the burials of leaders and their wives and are associated with the performance of certain cult actions by them. Shrines and ritual sites, as well as cult objects known in Sarmatian culture, are not necessarily associated with the specialization of cult activities. The use of the concepts of ‘Sarmatian priests’, ‘Sarmatian priestesses’ and ‘priestly attributes’ by the archaeologists is rather a tribute to historiography, but upon closer examination, they turn out to be historiographical phantoms rather than a reflection of social realities.
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The publication is devoted to the discovery, historical, cultural and artistic interpretation of unique artifacts of the art of carving on the horn dated by the time of the state of Kangju I in the 1st century BC — 2nd century AD from South Kazakhstan. For the first time in the archeology of Kazakhstan, in the catacomb burial of the Kylyshzhar burial ground, two median horn overlays were found on the handle of the “M”-shaped reflexive bow with subjects of social and semantic-ritual content, made by highly artistic carving (engraving) on the horn. One of them reflects the hunting scene of a noble Kangju man. It depicts a rider-nomad of oriental appearance in the pose of a low-seated jockey on a horse-mare, who shoots from a bow, hunting argali driven by a long pursuit. The shooter has the regalia of power, is armed with a bow and its auxiliary attributes (reserve bow, solidly lit quiver with a set of combat arrows). Another plot shows a group of argali hunted by a ‘bear-lion’, a mythical polymorphic creature: the animals tend to elude this ‘beast’, which grabbed one individual in a throw and is ready to devour it. Both compositions are united by hunting into a single sacred action, in which a person (a horse rider with high authority in the society of nomads with a status close to a deity) and a mythical ‘bear-lion’ (also a deity) participate — as characters endowed with special social and religious functions — in the hunt for argali, the animals that embody the global deity farn (hvarnah) among the Iranian-speaking peoples of Central Asia and South Kazakhstan. The archaeological finds that accompany the these plates, as well as the chrono-indicators presented by similar historical and cultural content of the plots, the technique of making artifacts from horn, bone, allow us to determine the chronology of products within the 1st century BC — 2nd century AD.
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Archaeologists of Sverdlovsk-Yekaterinburg and Tomsk in the taiga of the Surgut and Lower Ob’ River regions examined six burial objects of the 1st—4th centuries BC of Kulayka cultural and historical community with a large number of imported and local inventory. These include the graves of people located in different territories (a child, adults), the burial of ittarma-dolls, which were posthumous dummies of warriors who died in a foreign land, as well as a hoard with metal regalia of the shaman’s vestments. This indicates the beginning of an active social-economic stratification in the society of the Ob’-Ugrians and formation of the administrative, military, property and spiritual elite in it. The main reason for this was not the development of the producing economy, which was practically not present among the fishermen-hunters in the western regions of the taiga Ob’ region, but rather the integration of the north of Western Siberia in the system of the common Eurasian economy as a permanent supplier of furs, especially since the evolution of the northern (“fur”) branches of the Great Silk Road in the 1st century BC. At the same time, the first signs of social differentiation and the separation of the military class were traced here as early as the second half of the 1st millennium BC. This is confirmed by the finds of bronze and iron weapons of the steppe (Scythian-Sarmatian) and taiga (Kulaika) forms at forest sanctuaries, the first single copper-bronze anthropomorphous images in helmets and “sun crowns”, as well as the proliferation of miniature fortresses with powerful bastion-tower fortifications, likely places of residence of the Ugric elite. The architecture of such “towns” was borrowed from the forest-steppe tribes of the Tobol-Irtysh River region, and those from the Saka of the Aral Sea region.
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The article proposes a cross-cultural analysis of the concept of continuity of burial traditions in the cultures of the proto-Turkic and Turkic peoples of northern Eurasia, based on archaeological and folklore sources and ethnographic data of the Kazakh and Yakut ethnicities. Researchers use materials from archaeological studies of known and new sites of the Early Iron Age and Turkic time in Kazakhstan (Berel, Kyrykungir, etc.). The study of the topic requires the use of methodological approaches and developments of cultural and social anthropology, structural and semiotic analysis, deciphering the general appearance of similar cases in the spiritual culture of asynchronical, but mono-ethnic societies for the reconstruction of worldview ideas. When characterizing burial sites, the authors use traditional methods of archaeological description, chronological determination, stratigraphy, typological analysis, etc. New data have been obtained on the connections of elements of the worldview of tribes from the early Iron Age — the Middle Ages, enshrined in the burial rite of the Saka and Turkic population of the Eurasian steppes and materials of modern folklore of Turkic peoples (Kazakhs and Sakha Yakuts).
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The author has outlined the judicial prerogatives of the kadi court and the legal procedures followed as revealed in kadi sicills mainly from Ruse, Sofia and Vidin, preserved in the Oriental Department in the Sts Cyril and Methodius National Library. The first part of the article is devoted to a presentation of the variety of legal cases brought to the kadi court, roughly divided in three big groups: “notary”, “civil” and “criminal” cases, this division introduced because of differences in the legal procedures. Particular attention is paid to the family law cases and the role of the kadi court in them. An attempt is also made, in the second part of the article, to outline the functions and role of some of the officers attached to the kadi court: naibs, muhtesibs and particularly the institution of the “muslihun” (mediators), as well as those of the assistants and personnel of the court: ka.ibs and muhzirs. The legal procedures applied in the Ottoman kadi courts not only made possible, but required a wide participation of the local population in their work – through the institutions of the şuhud ul-hal (witnesses to a case), of the ehl-i vukuf, ehl-i habere, ehl-i huruf (experts). Some data have been provided concerning the question of how far this participation was really wide, the role of these institutions in a lawsuit and the religious affiliation of the people acting as such in terms of the attitude of Orthodox Christians to the kadi court. In conclusion, the author points out that the kadi court appears to have been the most important judicial institution in the provinces for the reaya, for Muslims and, to some extent, for Orthodox Christians, the latter having also other options for solving their legal disputes – the Church courts and the community bodies.
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The peculiarities in the development of the national economy and of industry in particular to a large extent determined the characteristic features of the industrial stratum. Bulgarian industrialists in their majority were of the first and second generation, and their original activity was connected mainly with the handicrafts and commerce. They emerged as a relatively more numerous group during the period between the wars and especially in the 1930 s. The scale of Bulgarian industry explains the large number of small industrialists and producers who came closer to artisan than to industrial production. In the mid-40s there were about 4,500–5,000 industrialists in Bulgaria. Of them not more than 200 or 250 could be entered into the category of big owners. Big and medium industrial capital was concentrated in joint-stock; companies, while small industrialists preferred one-man firms, general partnerships and limited liability companies. The overwhelming majority of the industrialists were Bulgarians. Among the other national groups the strongest was the presence of Jews who turned to the activity of industrial entrepreneurs chiefly in the years after the First World War.
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A fresh attempt is made to locate the medieval city of Vichina. Studying the numerous sources, a large part of the literature written on the question of the place of this city and based on the latest archeological finds, G. Atanasov sets forth his thesis that the big medieval fortified port and economic centre of Vichina was situated in the immediate proximity of Nufaru. Information about the city is encountered from the 10th to the 14th c. The depopulation and desertion of this major Lower Danubian centre took place probably in the late 14th and early 15th c. because from the beginning of the 15th c. the city of Vichina disappeared completely from the written sources.
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Roumania met with interest and anxiety the Unification of Southern Roumelia and the Principality of Bulgaria on September 6, 1885 (old style). It feared the enlargement of the Bulgarian state which in suitable condition would raise also the question of the return of Northern Dobroudja, incorporated into Roumania under the Treaty of Berlin. Soon after the act of unification Carol I left for London and premier Ion Brateanu for Vienna and Berlin to seek support for annexing part of Southern Dobroudja in the form of a “strategic correction of the frontier”. The Great Powers and Russia had no wish to encourage the Romanian intentions which would complicate the situation in the Balkans. In spite of that, however, the politicians in Bucharest and some opposition circles in September and October 1885 continued to blackmail the Bulgarian state to cede Dobroudjan territory. In view of the imminent war with Serbia, the Russian government exercised pressure on Romania to cease to threaten Bulgaria in a situation that was very difficult for the latter. During the Serbian-Bulgarian War the Romanian government and public sympathized with the Bulgarian people and helped it. This noticeable evolution was appreciated by Bulgaria which showed gratitude to its northern neighbour. The behaviour of Romania which wanted to avail itself of the difficult position of the Principality of Bulgaria was an important episode in the relations between the two neighbours; it was a proof of the existence of an aggressive strategy of Bucharest and its opposition to the Bulgarian national question.
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Marko D. Balabanov was one of the figures who took an active part in the socio-political struggles of the Bulgarians immediately before Bulgaria’s Liberation and at the same time was one of the founders of the new Bulgarian state. He joined the national church movement as early as the 1860s as a student at the theological college on the island of Chalcis, and later edited the newspaper “Vek” (“Century”). After the April Uprising together with Dragan Tsankov he left on a diplomatic tour in Europe to defend Bulgaria’s national interests. Balabanov was one of the authors of the Turnovo Constitution, and in the following years took a number of ministerial and diplomatic posts and engaged in vigorous political and literary activity. On the basis of published and unpublished sources, historiography and mainly the preserved personal library, the article examines the principal sources which played a major role in shaping M.Balabanov’s social and political views. An attempt has been made to establish the sequence in the acquisition of the books in the personal library, following up the evolution of the interests of this figure of the Bulgarian National Revival and the change in his orientation from Greek to French and finally to Bulgarian books: from theological to secular literature. The place is accurately determined of the works of the Renaissance, the Enlightenment and the Romantic Movement in the sale of M.Balabanov’s interests. Stress is laid on the great language, thematic and stylistic variety of authors and works that have influenced the formation of his views. M.Balabanov’s constant adherence to the liberal views and his great love, preserved until the end of his life, of Bulgaria and his emotional involvement in its successes and failures are also emphasized.
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The cult of Cyril and Methodius after the restoration of the Bulgarian State in the late 12th c. is considered in the article. Based on the analysis of same well-known and repeatedly examined sources – the Encomium of Cyril and Methodius and Boril’s Synodikon (1211), the Short Life of Cyril – Cyril’s Assumption (1255), as well as some less known and unused sources – a chant from the copy of the service of Constantine-Cyril the Philosopher from the Skopje Menologion (13th c ), some pieces of information in the Serbian chronicles, a Serbian “glorification” (15th c.) and particularly the so-called Legend of the Translation of the Holy Scripture from Hilendar Monastery, an attempt is made to clarify the question of the ideological contents of the cult and define its place in the ideological system of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom.
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A Bulgarian Catholic church organization was built during the second half of the 16th and the 17th c. In the Bulgarian lands. The tension created between Orthodox and Catholic people in the conditions of the domination of an alien faith of the Turkish rule posed a number of problems of a political, religious, financial and cultural character. On the basis of two Ottoman documents in the so-called Book of Complaints of 1675, reproduced in facsimile in Vienna in 1984, the authoress indicates the unlawful actions of the Orthodox clergy of the Sofia bishopric towards the Catholics in the same area. The differences that had arisen between the representatives of the two denomination are examined as seen by the Ottoman authorities who in this case assumed the role of an arbitrator.
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Hieroschimonk Spiridon of Rila was one of the eminent men of letters in the Bulgarian National Revival. He was widely known for his history written, according to him, in 1792. The political elements in his creative work, text and subtext are considered in this article. For this purpose are analysed the last pages of the history where he foe the first time surveys Bulgarian history as a whole from the destruction of the Bulgarian state to his time. It is pointed out that the historical facts (the conquest of Belgrade by the Serbian rebels headed by Kara Djordje) are at variance with Spiridon’s dating in the original and, consequently, the history could not have been completed before the end of 1806. Continuity is sought between Paissii’s “Slav-Bulgarian History” and Spiridon’s History. Indirect arguments are adduced in support of the hypothesis that Spiridon was acquainted with Paissii. For the first time is demonstrated the continuity of Spiridon’s History with that of Jovan Raic of 1794–1795, from where our author had borrowed the idea of recording folk customs and songs. Another work of Spiridon, “Prophecy of Agatangela...” which is now kept in the manuscript department of the “Sts. Cyril and Methodius” National Library, № 809, is analysed. A new more recent dating is also suggested. With respect to continuity, seen also as consistency and perseverance of political intention, is indicated the difference between history and prophecy.In an article dedicated to the continuity in the creative work of a National Revival man of letters one could but refer to the achievements of those scholars who in the past succeeded in solving many important questions concerning Spiridon’s work. The first pages of the article, therefore, constitute a detailed historiographic review.
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Reviews of: Šarl Irijart, Bosna i Hercegovina - putopis iz vremena ustanka 1875-1876, IRO »Veselin Masleša«, Sarajevo, 1981.; Zoran Lakić, Narodna vlast u Crnoj Gori 1941-1945, Cetinje, »Obod«, »Narodna knjiga« Beograd, 1981.; Sarajevo u revoluciji I-IV, Sarajevo, Istorijski arhiv Sarajevo, 1976-1981., str. 3326; Oblasna partijska savjetovanja na Šehitlucima (juni - juli 1941), Zbornik radova, Banjaluka, Institut za istoriju u Banjaluci, 1981., str. 278+(2); Vojnici revolucije, Narodna armija, Beograd, 1980.; Tito - vrhovni komandant, NIU »Narodna armija«, Beograd, 1980.; Hercegovina, časopis za kulturno i istorijsko nasljeđe, Arhiv Hercegovine Mostar, Muzej Hercegovine Mostar, Regionalni zavod za zaštitu spomenika kulture i prirode Mostar, Mostar, 1981., 1, 344; Istorijski zbornik Instituta za istoriju u Banjaluci, Banjaluka, 1981., 1982., I, II, 1, 2, str. 197, 370; Naučni skup Oblasna konferencija KPJ za Bosansku krajinu 21-23. 1942. u Skender-Vakufu, Skender-Vakuf, 21-23. 02. 1982.
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Reviews of: ИЗЛОЖБА ЈЕВРЕЈСКА ШТАМПА HA ТЛУ ЈУГОСЛАВИЈЕ ДО 1941. ГОДИНЕ, Савез Јеврејских општина Југославије, Београд 1982, 47 страна; Веселин Ђуретић, НАРОДНА ВЛАСТ У БиХ 1941— 1945. БЕОГРАД, Народна књига 1981, стр. 363; Ecaд Тихић, ПОСАВСКО-ТРЕБАВСКИ НОП ОДРЕД, Војноиздавачки завод, Београд 1983, 408 стр.; Милорад Муратовић, ДЕСЕТ КОНГРЕСА ОМЛАДИНЕ БиХ, Сарајево, Центар друштвених активности РКССОБиХ и »Ослобођење«, 1982, стр. 390+2; САРАДЊА ИСТОРИЧАРА CP BOCHE И ХЕРЦЕГОВИНЕ И CP ХРВАТСКЕ;
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