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Celem artykułu jest propozycja ujednolicenia formalnego opisu procesów poznawczych odbywających się w trakcie dialogu w taki sposób, aby możliwa stała się analiza podobieństw i różnic między tymi procesami. Formalne systemy dialogowe dzielą się na dwie podstawowe klasy czy paradygmaty modelowania komunikacji w zależności od tego, jakiego rodzaju kognitywny proces jest przedmiotem opisu danego systemu. Pierwszy z paradygmatów polega na konstruowaniu zestawu reguł dialogowych na wzór logiki dialogowej Lorenzena (1978), zgodnie z którymi gracze wspólnie dążą do wykazania (dowiedzenia) tautologiczności formuły. W takim przypadku będziemy mówili, że system opisuje dialogi formalne i formalny proces poznawczy polegający na dowodzeniu tautologiczności. W ramach drugiego paradygmatu dąży się do zbudowania systemu, wzorującego się na dialektyce formalnej Hamblina (1970), w którym „symuluje się” rzeczywistą praktykę komunikacyjną. W dialogach opisywanych przez te systemy, gracze przeprowadzają poprawną argumentację, tzn. argumentację, która spełnia określone postulaty racjonalności jak np. nie popełnianie błędnego koła w uzasadnianiu. W takim przypadku będziemy mówili o naturalnym dialogu i o naturalnym poznawczym procesie argumentacji. ===== The aim of the paper is to propose a unified formal account of dialogical cognitive processes so that it allows the analysis of similarities and differences between those processes. Formal dialogue systems constitute two basic categories or paradigms of modelling communication depending on what cognitive process is described by a given system. The first paradigm consists of designing a set of dialogue rules in a similar manner to Lorenzen’s dialogue logic (1978), and according to which players jointly aim to show (prove) the validity of a formula. In such cases we will say that the system describes formal dialogues and the formal cognitive process of proving the validity of a formula. The second paradigm focuses on building a system similar to Hamblin’s formal dialectics (1970), which “simulates” the real-life communication practice. In the type of dialogues described by those systems, players perform “good” argumentation, i.e. argumentation which fulfils certain requirements of rationality such as e.g. the requirement of not committing a fallacy of circular reasoning (begging the question). In such a case we will be speaking of a natural dialogue and a natural cognitive process of argumentation.
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W naszym artykule omawiamy hipotezę pierwszeństwa gestów w ewolucji języka, poczynając od dyskusji na temat historycznych obrońców tego podejścia i kończąc na współczesnych argumentach, pochodzących z badań empirycznych prowadzonych w ramach różnych dziedzin nauki. Oceniając siłę i słabość scenariuszy gesturalnych, wskazujemy na ich główny problem, tj. ich niezdolność wyjaśnienia przejścia z modalności głównie wizualnej do modalności głównie głosowej (tzw. problem „zmiany modalności”). Następnie dyskutujemy kilka możliwych rozwiązań tego problemu i dochodzimy do wniosku, że najbardziej zadawalającą jest perspektywa multimodalna, która zakłada, że język wyewoluował jako system, w którym modalność głosowa i wizualna były ze sobą głęboko zintegrowane już od najwcześniejszych stadiów. ===== In our paper we review the gestural primacy hypotheses in language evolution, starting with the discussion of the historical advocates of this approach and concluding with the contemporary arguments, derived from empirical research in various fields of study. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the gestural scenarios we point to their main problem, namely their inability to account for the transition from a mainly visual to a mainly vocal modality (the so called “modality transition problem”). Subsequently, we discuss several potential solutions to this problem, and arrive at a conclusion that the most satisfying option is the multimodal perspective, which posits that language evolved as a bimodal system, with the vocal and visual modalities very closely integrated from the very early stages.
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Autor pracy uważa, że źródło dystynkcji nazwy jednostkowe/nazwy ogólne ma charakter nie kulturowy, a poznawczy i na tym gruncie stara się rozwiązać jeden ze współczesnych problemów: jak to się dzieje, że podczas uczenia się słów dziecko powszechnie stosuje strategię agresywną i nie popełnia błędów kategoryzacyjnych związanych z użyciem (pozornym) niektórych nazw jednostkowych – imion własnych (gdy wymagane jest powstrzymanie się od stosowania tej strategii). Następnie autor argumentuje, że choć dziecko w wieku dwóch lat potrafi poprawnie użyć nazwy jednostkowej, to nie jest dowód na to, że potrafi poprawnie użyć imienia własnego, jak przypuszczają psycholodzy. Dziecko musiałoby rozumieć naturę imienia własnego. ===== The author of the article regards the source of the distinction for singular names/general names not to have a cultural character, but a cognitive one, and on these grounds tries to solve one important modern problem: how is it that when a child learns words, the child commonly applies an aggressive strategy and does not make category mistakes connected with the (apparent) use of some singular names – individual names (when it is required to refrain from applying this strategy). Next, the author argues that although a child at the age of two can properly use a singular name, it does not constitute any evidence that it can properly use a proper name, as psychologists assume. For that to happen the child would have to understand the nature of a proper noun.
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Na początku rozważań autor artykułu przedstawia spekulatywne i oparte na badaniach empirycznych argumenty za istnieniem pojęć podstawowych dla imion własnych mających odniesienie: dzieci nie są w stanie w kilka dni po urodzeniu ustalić cech decydujących o przynależności do kategorii jednoelementowej, a mimo to rozpoznają twarz swojej matki. Skoro nie mogą tego uczynić za pomocą cech, musi istnieć inne narzędzie kategoryzacyjne. Autor uznaje, opierając się na wynikach badań psychologów poznawczych i psychologów postaci, że jest to relacja podobieństwa ogólnego, a rodzaj pojęcia budowany w oparciu o to narzędzie nazywa „pojęciem podstawowym”. Podobieństwo to nie jest redukowalne do ściśle określonych cech i jest relacją nierównoważnościową. Jest ono przeciwstawiane podobieństwu szczegółowemu, które jest redukowalne do określonych cech i jest relacją równoważnościową. Pojęcia podstawowe dla imion własnych są pojęciami poziomu podstawowego. Ich budowy nie opisuje żadna ze współcześnie znanych koncepcji pojęć. Następnie autor artykułu podaje pewne właściwości przysługujące pojęciom dla imion własnych mających odniesienie. Analizy zawęża do rozpoznawania twarzy. Na koniec autor zwraca uwagę, iż w literaturze filozoficznej istnieje spór o to, czy imiona własne mają konotację. Uzasadnienie, że imiona własne (przynajmniej niektóre) są związane z pojęciami może być potraktowane jako wsparcie tezy, iż mają one konotację. ===== At the beginning of these considerations, the author of the paper presents speculative arguments, as well as those based on empirical research, for the existence of basic notions for proper names which have a reference: several days after their birth, children are not able to determine the conditions deciding about belonging to a single-element category, but still they are able to recognize their mother’s face. Since they cannot do it with the use of characteristics, there must be another categorizing tool. The author, basing on the results of cognitive and gestalt psychologists’ research, acknowledges that it is a relation of a general similarity for which the author calls the concept built upon it “the basic notion”. The similarity is not reducible to strictly specified features and is an inequivalent relation. It is juxtaposed with specific similarity which is reducible to certain features and is an equivalent relation. The basic concepts for proper names are concepts of the basic level. None of the current ideas of concepts describe the structure of basic concepts for proper names. Next, the author of the article gives some properties of concepts for proper names that have a reference. The analysis is narrowed down to face recognition. At the end, the author indicates that there is a conflict in the philosophical literature whether proper names have any connotation. The substantiation that (at least some) proper names are connected with concepts can be treated as a support for the thesis that they have a connotation.
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Constructing a normative theory of legal interpretation involves difficulties of various types. One problem is the adoption of certain cognitive assumptions concerning the choice of the legal articles that are subject to interpretation. Another difficulty is ascertaining what determines the rationality of the interpretive activities pursued in accordance with the proposed directives of interpretation. The third obstacle is the need to harmonise the theory of legal interpretation with the dialogical nature of understanding on one hand, and with the historicity of legal discourse on the other.
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Cognitive behavior theories are among the youngest paradigms in clinical psychology. They are subjected to constant modifications, which raises a lot of misunderstandings and misinterpretations. Some authors argue that this concept is inconsistent and personality traits recede into the background. They claim that cognitive theory is more the psychology of behavior, cognitive processes and structures than the psychology of human being (Sęk, 2005). The history of cognitive ideas development allows us to understand their assumptions, their current place in psychopathology, and the current state of knowledge. The division into the so-called three “waves” of the cognitive behavior theories renders it possible to separate stereotypes about this theory from its proper image. The article describes the current state of the cognitive behavior theories, with account given to the latest generation, which includes: Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) as well as Schema Focused Therapy (SFT).
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Humans maintain balance in the vertical position through random movements that result from instability of the body supported in two points. These tracking movements are responsible for the motor activity focused on maintaining body balance. The role of the postural control system is to choose a strategy, that is, the behaviour as a response to stimuli and regaining the balance through coordinated activity of the muscles that stabilize the talocrural and hip joints that perform movements in the frontal and sagittal planes. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of equestrian classes on postural balance in the frontal and sagittal balance in healthy boys aged 15 to 17 years and boys at the same age with mild intellectual disability. The study examined 100 randomized boys aged 15 to 17 years with mild intellectual disability and healthy boys. The study participants were divided into two groups: experimental group, who participated for 12 weeks in equestrian classes and the control group, with boys attending outdoor or indoor physical education classes. Before and after completion of the study, both experimental and control groups were diagnosed by means of Accu SwayPlus force plate. Maximum and minimum locations of the position of the centre of pressure (COP) with respect to the base of support on the platform were evaluated in the frontal and sagittal planes.
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The article elucidates and assesses the Marburg School’s account of the cognition. The characteristic feature of epistemology from this School is the rejection of the mirroring and acceptance of the cognitive transformation. The criticism of the mirroring theory is implicitly contained in Paul Natorp’s and Hermann Cohen’s cognitive relationism. Ernst Cassirer articulated this critical epistemology in his philosophy of the symbolic form and his conception of the symbolic representation. The historical bases of this criticism has been reconstructed as a main purpose of this article.
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The aim of the paper is a critical reconstruction and comparison of the philosophical positions of John Locke and George Berkeley on the problem of cognition as a reflection (Abbildtheorie) of reality. The article argues that Berkeley rejects the theory of transcendental reflection, but he does not refute any theory of reflection, because he recognizes the theory of immanent reflection. It is the background for the philosophy of Immanuel Kant that he has more connections with the realism of Locke than the idealism of Berkeley.
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Kant quite often refers to analogy though without really developing the theoretical aspects of the matter itself. Even when introducing in Critique of Pure Reason (“CPR”) an apparently clear distinction between analogy in philosophy and analogy in mathematics he was so succinct that there remain doubts as to whether the distinction is based on the criterion of fields wherein analogy might be applied or rather it refers to the structure of the analogy. The latter leaves room for differences in interpretation. While analogy in philosophy is built of four elements as a relation of two relations (a:b :: c:d), the structure of analogy in mathematics may either be same as this in philosophy or be conceived as built of three elements (a:b :: b:c), depending on the reference to source (with or without G.S.A. Mellin’s change to A179/B222 of CPR). In Lectures on Logic Kant distinguishes between analogy and induction; both these forms of reasoning are proper to the reflecting capacity to judge and, as such, opposed to inference by deduction (especially syllogism) which is specific to the reason (or: determining capacity to judge), closely linked to the understanding. The reflecting capacity to judge produces so-called reflective judgments which are of subjective validity only. Analogy, while hardly differing from induction in its practical use, shares with induction the common principium; let the assertion in the article be that the principium is drawn from the teleology of nature as derived in, inter alia, Critique of Judgment (the principle of purposiveness). Identity of grounds (par ratio) is required to formulate an analogy, which means that the corresponding elements in both pairs of an analogy have to belong to the same class; the classes, however, may only be singled out when, case by case, allowing for the context (category of relation) wherein par ratio is relevant.
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The main purpose of this article is to present the principle of reciprocity as one of the main techniques of persuasion commonly used in e-commerce. In the first part of the article, the principle of reciprocity is defined and studies indicating its impact on human behaviour is discussed. The principle has been mostly popularised by the publication of R. Cialdini; nevertheless, it is emphasised that the first studies in that topic were conducted in the 1960s by Alvin Gouldner. In the following section, the basic techniques for the principle application is discussed. Then, based on different examples, application of the principle in e-commerce is widely discussed. At the end of the paper, the common application of the principle in e-commerce is clearly stressed. A clear cognitive gap is identified, referring to the lack of empirical data on the actual impact of the principle of reciprocity on e-commerce effectiveness.
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An aim of considerations is to analyse the impact of the sensory profile of the colour of cereal products on the sensory acceptance of their colour. Among the products surveyed, there were selected pasta, crisps, and crispbread with an addition of bioactive components. The surveys were carried out by the method of quantitative descriptive analysis, or the sensory profiling and consumer evaluation. In the consumer evaluation, there were participating 156 people aged 25-55. The analysis of sensory profiling was carried out by a 10-person, specially trained for this purpose team. In the surveys, there was applied the 10-centimetre graphic scale of the hedonic nature. On the basis of the obtained results it was stated that the desired colour depended on the type of cereal product. In case of assessment of pastas, there were ascertained the lowest expectations towards the samples of high intensity of descriptors of grey, while the highest towards the samples of the highest intensity of the descriptors of cream colour. On the other hand, in assessment of crispbread, it was ascertained that consumers desired in the least degree brown towards the products with high intensity, and in the highest degree – cream colour. Yellow in the highest degree is desired in cereal products of the crisps type. Consumers in the least degree desire the descriptors of brown in such products.
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The article aims to show the role and meaning of the father in his daughter’s life. For a daughter who grew up without a father – who was absent in physical and emotional way – what results are serious consequences which affect her adult life. For example, those results are different types of psychological difficulties (of emotional, intrapsychic, or interpersonal nature). The author’s survey of the cases is based on the letters of adult daughters to their fathers, which contain a kind of retrospection. On the basis of the analyzed mate-rial what has been distinguished are the following consequences: the deficit of time spent with father becomes for daughter the cause of her inability to establish interpersonal relationships and create relationships; the deficit of affection shown by father is a source of impoverishment in his daughter’s emotional life;father’s absence in or abandonment of the family is for his daughter the cause of stress and depression.
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The theory of cognitive load (TCL) is a framework that is increasingly used in educational research. The basic idea of TCL is that the capacity of the working memory is limited and that in a situation when mastering a task requires more than the available capacity learning becomes difficult. In that case according to TCL, it is necessary to adjust the design of the instruction in order to optimize cognitive load and avoid the overload of the capacity of memory. Within TCL, it can be distinguished among different kinds of cognitive load that occurs in the situation of teaching, namely: intrinsic cognitive load that is related to the structure of the task, irrelevant cognitive load caused by form of instruction and relevant cognitive load, which creates a burden caused by the processes of learning and creation of new knowledge. The aim of optimizing the instruction would be to reduce the irrelevant cognitive load, to optimize of the intrinsic load in order to match the previous knowledge of students and to maximize the relevant load. TCL provides various processes so that the optimization of instructions can be achieved.
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Defined as mass psychology, the characteristics of the social, psychological behaviors and attitudes of mass, has been analyzed, in the 19th century, by the famous French social scientists Gustave Le Bon, Gabriel Tarde, pioneer of the German psychological school Sigmund Freud and English psychologist William Mc Dougall. These researchers have analyzed the psychology of mass movements occurring in the framework of social events, the gathering of people possessing different cultural and social values around an event and have argued that the acting of the mass with a collective consciousness and collective soul creates mass psychology. Especially, according to Le Bon and Freud, acting through “common soul”, “common consciousness”, “subconsciousness” that are the main characteristics of the mass psychology; are among the most important values of mass movements. The Gezi Movement, which took place in May- August 2013 in the Gezi Park, has also demonstrated the characteristics of a mass movement. Individuals and social groups composed of these individuals participating to the movement have acted through mass psychology. The proper characteristics of masses defined in Mass Psychology analyses of Le Bon and Freud have also been found in the masses participating to the Gezi Movement since these masses have tried to develop their resistance through the typical framework of mass psychology. This study has the purpose to provide an analysis of the Gezi Movement as a mass movement in the light of the scholars of the French and German social psychology school Gustave Le Bon and Sigmund Freud.
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Recent efforts towards providing high quality education of children with special needs inevitably raise the issue of creation of individualized plans and programs. Individualized plan and program is a framework for adapted and modified teaching methods, tailored to cognitive, social, emotional and behavioral characteristics of each individual child. As such, it should document and include: current level of capabilities, characteristics and knowledge, long-term goals (general realistic expectations), short-term goals (defined and specific outcomes), teaching methods and materials as well as parameters for measuring the plan’s achievement.
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Issues pertaining to child development have been an important topic in research. Not only is the development trajectory important but also the identification of factors that influence development trends in children. Socioeconomic status has received considerable attention in research as a factor determining development tendencies in early childhood. According to theories and frameworks, socioeconomic status influences family dynamics, parental techniques, parental investment and access to resources necessary for development. The frameworks consider that low socioeconomic status hinders development in children. Among the development domains that are influenced by socioeconomic status research documents impact language development, executive function, brain development, behavioral functioning, cognitive development and intelligence. The four theories dominating the research on the link between socioeconomic status and child development agree that lower SES standing hinders the development of children while parents with high socioeconomic status are able to provide the necessary preconditions for development.
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The article analyzes the tractate “An outlook on Mathematics through its influence on human education” (Ansicht des Einflusses der Mathematik auf die Bildung des Menschen) written by Józef Gołuchowski – a philosopher of Polish origin, who briefly taught at Vilnius University in the early 19th century. The statements of Gołuchowski on the importance of mathematical thinking are compared with similar ideas in Kant, Fichte, Schelling and Schiller. It is recognized that features of Romantic philosophy are only of fragmented character in the tractate. The importance of feeling compromising the role of reason and intellect has not been enhanced, rather the necessary harmony of all cognitive capacities has been accentuated.
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