Publisher: Scientia Kiadó

CRIME GENRES AND THE MODERN-POSTMODERN TURN: CANONS, GENDER, MEDIA

CRIME GENRES AND THE MODERN-POSTMODERN TURN: CANONS, GENDER, MEDIA

Author(s): Andrea Virginás / Language(s): English

The grand narrative of the turn from the modern to the postmodern has profoundly shaped Anglo-American thought on art history, literary and film history in the last three decades. The identification of postmodern qualities - contrasted with the canonized modern features - has set the agenda for Ihab Hassan, Fredric Jameson, Brian McHale or even Arthur C. Danto, to name but a few critics. Postmodernism has often been seen as the process whereby modernist high artistic and mass cultural practices are being analyzed, mimicked, and ironized, thus becoming the material of self-conscious artistic preoccupations in different media.

Bolyai Breviary

Bolyai-breviárium

Author(s): Róbert Oláh-Gál / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: János Bolyai; Farkas Bolyai; anniversary; memoir;letters;

János Bolyai was born 210 years ago. With this themes, I would like to attract the attention of the interested readers to this anniversary. About the Bolyais a lot of people wrote a lot of things. Even so we would like to confirm with this small book that there are still many unknown findings in their life. For example we didn’t known that János Bolyai spent in his childhood every summer at Alsógáld (Galda de Jos). János Bolyai doesn’t lived twelve years in Domáld, only six. It is interesting to know about their adaptation in the surroundings. The first chapter contains a compact résumé about the life of János Bolyai based on the latest authentic documents from the archives. The second chapter is about Farkas Bolyai: his closest relations and his relation with his surroundings. The most precious part of this chapter is the letter which was written by Farkas Bolyai to the baron Miklós Wesselényi. By the way, this document contains new data too about the history of the Reformed Boarding School. The third chapter includes some interesting information about János Bolyai. It turns out that he wasn’t the savant who lived one's life aloof but he was a very active person who took care to common weal, to the civic life of Marosvásárhely but who worked equally on the farm in Domáld.

Film. Picture. Language

Film. Kép. Nyelv

Author(s): / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: film;picture;language;medium;

New Media and Society. Researches in the Hungarian Environment

New Media and Society. Researches in the Hungarian Environment

Author(s): / Language(s): English

Keywords: new media; information society; Hungarian environment

What are the specific challenges and opportunities of the information society? The increasing use of information technology influences various aspects of our lives: the problem of accessing information is replaced gradually by challenges regarding how to select and organize relevant information; alternative opportunities of self-affirmation or nurturing the social relationships are offered by ICT; the “normal” educational routines of parents and teachers are challenged, and there are controversial questions around copyright issues as well.Theoretical considerations and experimental data resulting from research of the Hungarian cultural environment (in Hungary and in the Hungarian-inhabited regions of Romania) are explored in the present book, in accordance with papers presented at ”New Media – Mobile Age” conference (organized in march 2016 in Tîrgu Mureș, Romania). The published studies and research data are of interest for comparisons with international research results, and for outlining further development strategies and policies.

Local Environmental Problems and Answers in Hungary and Romania

Local Environmental Problems and Answers in Hungary and Romania

Author(s): / Language(s): English

Keywords: local self-governments;Hungary;Romania;eco-villages;smart cities;environment protection practices;

The following volume of essays is a result of the research that was done from autumn 2015 until spring 2018 by an eleven-person research group of the Faculty of Law, University of Debrecen, who tried to look into what role local self-governments in Hungary had played in shaping environmental policy and environmental law. Further, it is a result of the partnership between the Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Cluj-Napoca of Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania and the Faculty of Law of the University of Debrecen. However, because of the complexity of the topic, besides the legal approach, it also includes other approaches and modes of interpretation, beginning with ecological aspects through public policy to a sociological approach and interpretation, while mixed research methods are used at the same time. Beyond classic legal methods such as legislative analysis, a questionnaire research among 516 local governments, different focus-group interviews have been used, and fieldwork among 10 local governments was carried out. These essays are meant for those who are interested in the issues of eco-villages, smart cities, ecosystem services, environment protection practices, and environmental policy instruments or who are trying to obtain appropriate answers for the problems of integrating agricultural production and biodiversity, the general questions of waste management in Hungary and Romania, and the responsibility of local authorities.

"They Started in September...” Youth Education in the Socialist Press of Minorities: Columns for Children and Youth in the Gazettes Neue Banater Zeitung and Szabad Szó (1968–1990)

„Elindultak szeptemberben…” Ifjúságnevelés a kisebbségi szocialista sajtóban: A Neue Banater Zeitung és a Szabad Szó gyermek- és ifjúsági rovatai (1968–1990)

Author(s): Erika Kommer / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: youth education; daily newspapers; Neue Banater Zeitung; Szabad Szó; Timişoara; socio-political relations;

This book is a comparative analysis of the articles appeared in the daily newspapers Neue Banater Zeitung (published in German) and Szabad Szó (written in Hungarian) edited in Timişoara between 1968 and 1990. The main question of the research is: How and in what ways are children and youth addressed by these newspapers? Looking for a response, the book firstly outlines the socio-political relations in Romania during the period under review, mentioning the most important historical and cultural events of the German and Hungarian minorities. Another chapter presents the Neue Banater Zeitung, highlighting the personality of Editor-in-Chief Nikolaus Berwanger and key columns such as Pipatsch and Kulturbote. This is followed by the presentation of Szabad Szó and then the children’s, youth’s, and student’s pages and columns for correspondence of both newspapers. A separate chapter deals with the language of these columns, the “Newspeek” / “wooden language” as a tool of manipulation as well as the educational principles and the school model reflected in these newspapers of the communist Romania. The book also contains analysis of newspaper articles and interviews with journalists from the era: János Graur, Horst Samson, Ödön Józsa, Marius Koity, and Mária Pongrácz P.

Studies on Imagology

IMAGOLÓGIAI OLVASÓKÖNYV

Author(s): / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: imagology; the other; identity; mental image about the other and the self; communist censorship; Balkanism;

To confront with the other is the indispensable condition of the formation of one’s identity. This is also the case with groups; each community defines itself against the foreign. Imagology deals with the scientific research of mental images formed about the other and the self. The volume includes theoretical studies and case studies on the theoretical-historical approach of this interdisciplinary domain. Zsuzsa Tapodi’s general survey is supplemented by Joep Leerssen’s study from the perspective of the history of literature and mentality as well as by Sorin Mitu’s article from the perspective of history. Discussing Balkanism in connection with George Enescu’s opera, Dan Anghelescu’s analysis in the field of aesthetics sets against the terms the Balkans and Balkanism used as negative stereotypes. This is a positive characteristic, the container of those features which make the Romanian composer’s works unique and which can convey the Nietzschean concept of tragedy. Through the analysis of the edition in Romania of Áron Tamási’s autobiographical volume, Árpád Kémenes’s study argues that in the case of Hungarian authors the communist censorship banned not only the fragments showing a negative image of the Romanians, but also those reinforcing the Hungarians’ identity. Sorin Mitu’s study analyses the Hungarians’ image about the Romanians and the Romanians’ image about the Hungarians; Axel Braner follows the changes of German writers’ image about the Romanians. Zsuzsa Tapodi presents two books related to imagology, on xenophobia, by the Italian belletrist and theoretician Umberto Eco.

Performativity of Artworks Created in Nature

A természetben létrehozott művészi alkotások performativitása

Author(s): Andrea Căbuz / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: art theory discourse; performativity; contemporary art;artworks; man-made interventions;

The art theory discourse is in lack of terminology regarding the analysis ofconnections and interactions between nature and contemporary art – especiallyartworks that are in connection or are created in a natural environment. Theaim of this book is to introduce and define starting points and terminology inthe analysis of man-made interventions in natural environments that have someaesthetic value and artistic intentions. These terms are interdisciplinary and areused mostly in the realm between theatre and visual arts. I argue for exampleterms like: performativity, performative space, viewer, site-specific, aura, atmosphere,etc. The dimensions of the research do not allow a large number ofartworks to be discussed. Therefore, it can only include specifically illustratedand underlined subjects.

Lives and Stories from a Bygone World

Életek és történetek egy letűnt világból

Author(s): Mária Szikszai / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: life stories; Mihály Tyukodi; documents; priest; anthropological journey;

We all have stories, written, oral or otherwise, that we formulate and distribute throughout our lives. This is the story of Mihály Tyukodi, which we learn from the documents he left us. The story of a priest who just wanted to be a man - as he himself put it about himself. But his story has become a little bit mine since I got to know him, because my story is a little bit different since I got to know his. This book is an attempt to tell Mihály’s story, based on the documents he left to posterity. The protagonist of our book has lived through most of the 20th century: he was born in 1916 and lived through the turn of 1989. He saw unfold in 1990 the new world that had previously been a dream in Romania. The written material he left behind is a rarity of its kind: more than 2,400 documents survive after him. The journey to which I invite the reader is an anthropological journey, but it is not in space but in time: these documents offer a journey through time into the culture of a world now gone.

Data Processing with R. Applications in the Environmental Sciences

Adatfeldolgozás alapjai R-rel. Alkalmazások a környezettudományban

Author(s): Andrea Rebeka Zsigmond / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: environmental science studies; R – a free software for statistical analyses and data processing; basics of statistics;

This book is designed for students involved with environmental science studies. It is a useful guide for them to become acquainted with R, which is a free software for statistical analyses and data processing. Today, R is accepted and widely used in the scientific community. The main reason of its popularity is the boundless possibilities R gives for users through the packages developed by statisticians all over the world. The book contains eight chapters, at first providing information about the basics of statistics and experimental design in the environmental sciences. The following chapters present the language of R and the main commands for handling a data frame and constructing simple plots such as histograms, box plots, or scatter plots. Through chapters three to seven, the distributions of continuous and discrete data and the most relevant hypothesis testing procedures are detailed. This part is the core of the book, which provides an expansively treated knowledge for the reader to feel themselves confident in processing experimental data with R in a scientific manner. The eighth chapter is dedicated to regression analysis. This chapter presents the linear regression and the generalized linear models confined to one independent variable. The book relies on a comprehensive bibliography containing Hungarian, English, and Romanian scientific articles and books. For students who want to deepen their English statistical language, The R Book (Crawley, 2013) is highly recommended. There are also some books written in Romanian language that are also recommended: Analiza statistică folosind limbajul R (Păun Păun 2009) and Noţiuni de statistică aplicată cu exemple în R (Păun 2016). For learners, it is recommended to pass through the chapters chronologically because the knowledge the book gives is logically constructed. For those who are familiarized with the statistical tools, the book can be used as a handbook for finding a useful solution in R for the given problem.

The Relationship between Overweight, Obesity, and Nutrition

A túlsúly, az elhízás és a táplálkozás kapcsolata

Author(s): János Csapó,Csilla Albert / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: obesity; eating habits; dietary composition; energy intake; body weight;

In our age, in the more developed part of our world, food is available to people with virtually unlimited access, as a result of which obesity has become a global problem, an epidemic that is increasingly threatening humanity. Obesity is significantly influenced not only by human genetics but also by eating habits, dietary composition, energy intake, which provides an opportunity to develop strategies to control body weight and obese people to achieve significant weight loss.We hope that with our book we can draw attention to the fact that obesity is a public disease and that much more should be expended to sacrifice for pre-obesity education, treatment of obesity, and healing of sick people. These “sacrifices” would not only serve the interests of the individual but would also bring significant benefits to the national economy, as less costs would be needed to spend to heal sick people, and they would be able to do their beneficial work in everyday life for longer.

Research Methodology in the Communication Studies

A kutatás módszertana a kommunikációtudományokban

Author(s): Gyöngyvér Erika Tőkés / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: steps of the research process; research methods; cognition; random sampling;

The aim of the book is to acquaint the communication and public relation students with the logic of scientific cognition, the steps of the research process and the key research methods of communication studies. In the volume, the students may read about qualitative and quantitative methods of the social sciences and about text analysis techniques of the humanities. In conclusion, we present the main rules regarding the elaboration of a scientific publication and about the giving of a scientific presentation. The first chapter presents the forms of cognition, the peculiarities of scientific cognition, emphasizing the differences between scientific and commonplace cognition. The second chapter presents the preparation phase of the research, the difficulties of formulating the research problem and the steps of the completion of the research plan. The third chapter deals with the question of sampling. The fourth chapter discusses the research ethic and the most common moral convictions guiding scientific research. The fifth chapter is about the importance of the bibliographic review in the research process. From the sixth to the tenth chapters, we present the main data collecting methods like direct observation, the interview, the focus group, the questionnaire survey and content analysis. The eleventh chapter gives some statistical procedures of the quantitative data analysis. In the twelfth and the thirteenth chapters, we present the textual analysis opportunities of the moving pictures, like narrative and genre analysis. The fourteenth chapter presents the basic principles of the completion of a research report and of a scientific publication. The fifteenth chapter shows the rules of giving a successful scientific oral presentation. Every chapter has a similar structure. Following each chapter, the reader receives review questions, which help him to check his acquired knowledge. The review questions continue with exercises, which help the students to apply the gained knowledge. The chapters end with annotated bibliography where we indicate additional useful sources to facilitate further enrichment of knowledge. The review questions and exercises require individual solutions and help the students in their home preparation. At the end of the volume, we compiled a dictionary of the terms used in three languages (Hungarian–Romanian–English), in order to assist students in getting acquainted with the methodological terminology in these languages.

University on Farkas Street

Egyetem a Farkas utcában

Author(s): György Gaal / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: Franz Joseph University; Hungarian higher education; Cluj-Napoca;

The volume provides a detailed presentation of the circumstances and the process of establishing Franz Joseph University in Cluj-Napoca, describes the various development stages in the life of the University, and lines up the portraits of the emblematic personalities of Hungarian university education from different historical periods. The book at hand is well documented and beautifully illustrated with contemporary photographs, evoking the past centuries of Hungarian higher education.

Under the Spell of Dance

A tánc bűvöletében

Author(s): Adrienne Laskay / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: dance artist; conversation; Erzsebet Szálassy Nagy; the foundations of ballet; the composition of a performance, choreography;

This volume is the result of conversations the author has had with dance artist Erzsébet Szálassy Nagy, giving an insight into the artist’s private life, shedding a light onto her family background (her father is the author of the workers’ life István Nagy, her mother is the sister of Béla Józsa, who died in martyrdom whilst incarcerated for his anti-war activities during World War II.), bringing into focus her career as an artist, her preparations for it, and her involuntary change of career, which luckily happened in her retirement years only. Moreover, the book provides a peek into topics related to the art of dancing, which are more or less hidden from the everyday audience. These are specialized topics that touch on the foundations of ballet, emphasize the role of music in the construction of movements, stress the importance of physical and psychological factors, illuminate the role of the choreographer in the composition of a performance, and point out the importance of the artistic methods of expression in the dramatic construction of ballet. Photos of her performances provide colour to the book, as well as recensions and reviews in the Appendix, complemented by the chronological listing of the artist’s roles in her repertoire.

“Everything for Transylvania!” The History of the Transylvanian Party between 1940 and 1944

„MINDENT ERDÉLYÉRT!” AZ ERDÉLYI PÁRT TÖRTÉNETE 1940 ÉS 1944 KÖZÖTT

Author(s): János Kristóf Murádin / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: inter-war Transylvania; Second Vienna Arbitration;

The book entitled “Everything for Transylvania!” The History of the Transylvanian Party between 1940 and 1944 offers a detailed presentation of the history of the dominant political organization of the Hungarians in Northern Transylvania, reannexed by Hungary after the Second Vienna Arbitration. After the introduction and the methodological part, the volume presents the Transylvanian Party in eight chapters. The first chapter offers a comprehensive image of the Hungarian political life in the inter-war Transylvania, while the following chapter analyses the Second Vienna Arbitration and its consequences, with special attention to the invitation of Transylvanian deputies to the Parliament. The third chapter discusses the foundation of the Transylvanian Party, presents its leadership and the development of the local branches, and analyses the composition of the membership, together with the ways of financial sustainment. After that, the next chapter is about the ideology of the Party, also covering a presentation of its programme. The fifth chapter is dedicated to the parliamentary work. Through analysing the discourses, the party’s cultural, economic, foreign and minority politics are presented. The next chapter is a synthesis of the activity of the Party as an organization for the safeguarding of public interest. Its symbols and publications are presented here, as well as the mass events and some minor events organized by the Party and the institutionalized relations with its members. For the presentation of the political background of the Transylvanian Party, it is essential to describe the attempts made by mother land parties after 1940 to penetrate into Northern Transylvania, which is the topic of the seventh chapter. The last chapter of the book describes the political changes after the German occupation in March 1944 and its effects on the Party. This final part presents the abolition of the Party from the perspective of general political and military events. The volume ends with the chronology of the Party’s history, the list of the political leaders and several short biographies of the leading politicians of the Transylvanian Party, incorporated by annexes. The list of images and tables are included in appendices, followed by bibliography. During his research work, the author used archival sources, collections of documents, publications of the Transylvanian Party, special books and studies, memoirs and articles from the contemporary press.

Metacognitive Strategies ─ Components and Measurement

METAKOGNITÍV STRATÉGIÁK ─ ÖSSZETEVŐIK ÉS MÉRÉSÜK

Author(s): István Zsigmond / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: metacognitive strategies; metamemory processes; problem-solving processes; declarative knowledge; conditional knowledge; procedural knowledge; QMSR;

Researching metacognitive strategies has become important for scientists since Flawell (1971) argued for the crucial role of metamemory processes in the development of memory. The number of scientific publications on metacognition is growing every year. However, some aspects regarding the concept of metacognition are still ambiguous. Main theories regarding metacognitive processes and their complementarity are presented. The elaboration procedure of Integrative Model of Metacognition(IMM) is presented, which is based on the complementarity of former models and their inclusion in theories about problem solving. A principle characteristic of IMM is the possibility to make a clear distinction of metacognitive and cognitive processes, offering an answer to critics regarding the concept of metacognition. The IMM makes apparent that metacognitive strategies are those elements that regulate other problem-solving processes, and a strategy becomes metacognitive when its conditional knowledge-components are connected to situations when we don't understand something. The model incorporates the majority of concepts related to metacognition (metacognitive monitoring and regulation, metamemory, metaknowledge, etc.), and makes possible to include any metacognitive process in problem-solving. The IMM offers a starting point for elaborating measurement instruments of metacognitive processes. It points out what kind of knowledge and procedures are necessary for developing functional metacognitive strategies. When analysing the reading process with the MIM model, we can find out what are the difficulties for learning and utilizing comprehension strategies. We present the process of elaborating the Questionnaire of Metacognitive Strategies in Reading (QMSR), which makes possible evaluating the knowledge-components of four basic reading comprehension strategies: resuming, selecting important information, addressing questions and re-reading. QMSR measures the following aspects of these strategies: declarative knowledge necessary for utilizing these strategies and conditional knowledge ─ when and why to utilize these strategies, and procedural knowledge ─ the ability of utilizing the strategies. We administered the QMSR to three groups of children (504 pupils in total):third grade (N = 243), fourth grade (N = 189) and seventh grade (N = 72) from 10 schools. According to statistical analysis reliability, content and constructive validity of QMSR are acceptable. Predictive validity could not be calculated because lack of acceptable criteria. When utilizing alternative criteria we have found acceptable predictive validity of QMSR.

THE METAMORPHOSIS OF MOTHER-TONGUE EDUCATION

AZ ANYANYELVOKTATÁS METAMORFÓZISA

Author(s): / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: mother-tongue education; ability to express oneself; Hungarian schools in Romania; adolescents' identity construction; career choices; value orientation;

Based on empirical studies, the volume comprises four studies related to mother-tongue education: shaping the ability to express oneself in writing among students in Hungarian schools in Romania; positive and negative identification of pupils with fairy tale characters; the process of adolescents' identity construction based on written self-characterization; 9th graders' career choices and value orientation.

The Change of Property in Romania's Transition Process

A TULAJDONVÁLTÁS FOLYAMATA ROMÁNIA GAZDASÁGI ÁTALAKULÁSÁBAN

Author(s): Árpád Szabó / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: change of property; economic transition; Central and Eastern European countries; NATO; European Union; privatization of agriculture;

Beginning with the middle of the XX. century, the majority of the Central and East European population has lived most of its life subjected to the experiments of a political, economical and social environment ─ which finally proved itself to be totally unsuccessful. Subsequent to World War II, the Central and Eastern European countries got under the influence of the Soviet Union and were compelled to live and coexist with that system. The system itself bore a different name in almost every country, but there were, nevertheless, some mutually characteristic features. The socialist system collapsed between 1989 and 1991. Many things have changed ever since. During the last two decades most of the countries in the region have become members of the NATO, and the European Union. From political point of view, there is political partition with due and democratically elected parliaments and governments. When choosing my research subject, I have chosen to look into the Romanian process of change of property, focusing on the process of privatization. Though only a few, in comparison with the other Central and Eastern European countries, but there have already been elaborated comprehensive studies [Earle-Sapatoru, 1993; Earle-Telegdy, 1998; Negrescu, 2000; Telegdy, 2001]. Therefore, I am not going to analyse in detail the process itself. My book consists of three major units. I define the basic terms and I present the hypotheses of the research in the first part of the first unit. In the second part of the first unit I make an overview of the international literature dealing with the economic transition in Central and Eastern Europe, and especially with the early premises of privatization. The second unit compares the features of transition in Romania and Hungary, the two countries being part of the same region. The third unit of the book deals with the privatization of agriculture and consists of three chapters. These chapters describe the impact of privatization on the land-structure, the agricultural machinery and the agricultural production. The research of the privatization in agriculture was financed by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and it was a part of a larger strategic research programme called "The privatization of Agriculture in Transylvania". I have done my part of research together with students both from the Babeș─BolyaiUniversity of Cluj and Sapientia University. The book is concluded with the due findings of my research followed by the list of references.

Profession or Vocation? The Status Group of Hungarian University Teachers in Cluj-Napoca

Szakma vagy hivatás? A kolozsvári magyar egyetemi oktatók státuscsoportja

Author(s): Gyöngyvér Erika Tőkés / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: social stratification; social mobility; Hungarian university lecturers; social environment; status acquisition;

The subject of the book is the social stratification and mobility of the Hungarian university lecturers from Cluj. In the first chapter, we present the theoretical support which provides the basis of our analysis, in the second chapter we present the social environment in which the researched group may be included while the third chapter refers to the stratification and mobility characteristics of the target group in the mirror of the empirical data obtained from the survey carried out in 2002 and the interviews made in 2005. The Hungarian university lecturers from Cluj form a status group that is part of the Romanian middle class. However, this is not a homogenous group but rather a stratum differentiated according to the analysed stratification dimensions (material situation, consumption habits, the habits concerning the cultural consumption, the position of power, social relationships). Generally, the social changes generated by the change of regime had a favourable influence on the Hungarian university lecturers from Cluj, the group being characterized by a strong ascending social mobility and social reproduction. Regarding the process of status acquisition, personal performances and the structural situation play a more important role than the origin, and the older the person gets, the less important the performance and the origin become.

The Basics of Freehand Drawing in Landscape Architecture

A szabadkézi rajzoktatás alapjai a tájépítészetben

Author(s): Andrea Căbuz / Language(s): Hungarian

Keywords: landscape architecture; compositional construction; three-dimensional space; freehand drawing;

This educational material was born from the idea of synthesising a material, which would be a visual support for students who are getting familiar with the profession of landscape architecture, focusing on aspects that are important in this regard. It is intended to serve as support material for art-based subjects in their first year of study. But it may also prove useful in the coming years in the development of other designs and projects. I took into account the fact that most students did not pursue studies in art. And those students who nevertheless have experience in artistic creation can also certainly benefit from the approaches and syntheses of the information presented. Basic art tools and techniques are introduced at the beginning. Following that, I present ways to illustrate different plants and trees with different tools in various styles. The theory of the compositional construction of an image is based on these, after which the possibilities of using colours are discussed.This is followed by the presentation of the rules for the construction of the three-dimensional space in perspective with means of drawing. In conclusion, the importance of sketching is discussed, as well as the application of all the presented information in landscape architecture drawing. All information provided herein serves as a basis for the students, besides which their own contribution in the actual elaboration of the drawings is also exceptionally important. The basis of creative work is how it is done, but the soul is what is presented. This can only be added by the individual artists. My goal is to provide students with the necessary tools to help them express themselves, show everything that lies within them, all their knowledge, creativity, and personality. As a motivation, the vast majority of the drawings in this manual were made by students from previous years during the courses I taught them in their first year of study.