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THE REFUGEE CRISIS IN THE AEGEAN SEA: AN ANALYSIS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE REGIONAL SECURITY COMPLEX

Author(s): Tolga Öztür,Seda ERKAN / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2023

The phenomenon of migration varies according to factors in many different dimensions, this study deals with irregular migration and the events that occur in this context. Turkey, due to its geopolitical position, is a transit country in the irregular migration issue, in comparison with neighboring countries, Turkey has become a transit country for migrants due to its relatively higher level of development compared to Middle Eastern countries located to its south and east, and its lower level of development compared to European countries. In this study, the results and reasons for Syrian refugee’s attempts to use Turkey as a transit country and cross to Greece over the Aegean Sea will be analyzed from the perspective of Barry Buzan’s ‘Regional Security Complex Theory. This study focuses on the problem of whether a regional security complex has emerged in the Balkans due to the migration movement resulting from the Syrian Civil War, using Buzan’s theory as a framework, between Turkey and Greece.

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The role of ideology in the Polish political debate over the 2015 migration crisis

Author(s): Łukasz Łotocki / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

The aim of this article is to reconstruct the main ideological assumptions present in the Polish political debate about the migration crisis in Europe in 2015. The article also poses research questions aboutthe extent to which the ideological beliefs manifested by the participants in the debate posed a risk of distorting reality, as well as questions about the ways in which specific ideological beliefs were imposed on the public and political opponents. The main method used in the article is a qualitative discourse analysis based on elements of the mediation approach proposed by Tomasz Piekot. The identification of the main ideological assumptions present in linguistic political messages was conducted taking intoaccount the generalised division between supporters and opponents of Polish participation in the relocation and resettlement mechanism established in 2015 at the forum of the European Union. The analysis was based on theoretical considerations concerning the concept of ideology, as well as the relationships between politics, ideologies, language, and political debate. The analysis shows that in the case of both of the principal sides of the political dispute on the topic addressed, there were simplifications, generalisations ,metaphors and examples of hyperbole distorting the picture of reality caused by ideological assumptions. Both supporters and opponents of relocation and resettlement utilised ideologically motivated instrumental linguistic behaviours in order to achieve their assumed political goal. The issue of Polish participation in the relocation mechanism was automatically and excessively simplified by attempts to identify it with such issues as humanitarianism, security, and European solidarity.

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The importance of the role of time in the adaptation process of traditional emigrants

Author(s): Gabriela Strzelec / Language(s): English Issue: 49/2023

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE: The article’s primary goal is to identify the factors that contribute to traditional emigrants’ adaptation to foreign postings in international corporations in Poland, with particular emphasis on the role of time. At the same time, the essential intention of this research pilot is to verify the research tool.THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND METHODS: The article presents the current scientific achievements in expatriate adaptation, particularly emphasizing the longitudinal dimension. The pilot study results presented in the empirical part were carried out using the case study method, and the research tool was an interview questionnaire.THE PROCESS OF ARGUMENTATION: To better understand the motives, factors, barriers, and starting points that dynamically occur over time and influence adaptation in different dimensions and areas, Haslberger, Brewster, Hippler 3D model.RESEARCH RESULTS: The main goal of the qualitative pilot study was the initial exploration of the area of expatriate adaptation. The study results fill the research gap by a) using an innovative 3-D model, b) identifying the speci­fics of this model’s adjustment, importance, and challenges in the international context, and c) showing the crucial role of the longitudinal dimension in the adjustment process.CONCLUSIONS, INNOVATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Few Polish researchers dealing with the issue of emigrants’ adaptation have considered the role of time in this process. It should, therefore, be emphasized that this work is new in Polish literature and fills a research gap. Practitioners responsible for adapting expatriates (AEs), knowing the time needed for an AE to adapt to the delegation country’s culture, attitudes, and behaviors, can more effectively determine the goals the employee should achieve. Therefore, having a tool that indicates facilitating factors, motives, or barriers, they can more consciously prepare a training package before entering the market and adjust its intensity over time.

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Ukrainian Immigration to Poland

Author(s): JOANNA LESKA-ŚLĘZAK / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

The aim of the article is to analyse the immigration of Ukrainians to Poland against the background of changing migration policy . It contains the thesis that changes in Polish migration policy are a consequence of demographic problems as well as those related to the needs of the labour market . Numerous legal regulations facilitating Ukrainian immigrants’ settlement and work in Poland have been introduced since 2015 . Poland’s openness to visitors from Ukraine after the outbreak of the war on its territory was confirmed in the Act of 12 March 2022 on assistance to Ukrainian citizens in connection with the armed conflict on the territory of that country . Currently, there are approximately 3 .2 million Ukrainians in Poland, including 2 .2 million in the areas of the Union of Metropolises of Polish Cities .

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Together or Apart? The Russian-Speaking Minority in Estonia and Its (Dis)Integration into Society after 1991

Author(s): Dorota Maj / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2023

Estonia’s policy towards national minorities is considered one of the most restrictive in Europe, result- ing in a differentiated status of persons living in the state and an unprecedented level of statelessness. This is due to the fact that after Estonia’s independence in 1991, the “zero option”, which guarantees citizenship to all residents of the state, was not introduced, but only to those who were Estonian citizens before the annexation of the state by the USSR and their descendants. The others had to go through a naturalisation process in order to obtain citizenship. The restrictive naturalisation law was intended to facilitate the process of social integration by forcing people to learn the Estonian language and culture. The aim of the research conducted in the article is to analyse the assumptions of Estonia’s policy towards the Russian-speaking minority after 1991. The article verifies the hypothesis that Estonia’s policy towards national minorities is not conducive to the integration of representatives of national minorities into the titular nation. This is due to the strict naturalisation requirements, the failure to include representatives of the Russian-speaking minority in the integration process from the outset, and Russia’s activities in the Baltic region. The article consists of three parts. The first presents the genesis of the Russian-speaking minority on the territory of present-day Estonia, the second analyses the functioning of the Russian-speaking minority in the light of the applicable law, while the third examines the state of integration of the Russian-speaking minority into Estonian society and its identification with the state. The analysis leads to the conclusion that it is difficult to make a clear assessment of Estonian policy on the integration of the Russian-speaking minority. On the one hand, a systematic increase in identification with the state can be observed, while on the other hand, significant disparities in integration have become apparent.

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MPS FROM THE WEST POMERANIAN PROVINCE ON POLISH MIGRATION POLICY. ANALYSIS BASED ON SUBMITTED INTERPELLATIONS IN THE 9TH TERM OF THE PARLIAMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND

Author(s): Marzenna Giedrojć / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2023

The statutory right of a deputy to submit interpellations is provided for in the Rules of Procedure of the Polish Parliament as well as in the Act on the Exercise of the Manda- te of a Depute and Senator. The aim of the paper is to analyse Poland’s migration policy in 2019–2023 in the context of interpellations submitted by MPs. In substance, they covered three areas of migration policy: the creeping refugee crisis in the EU and its consequences for Poland, the conflict on the external border of the European Union, which is the Polish-Belarusian border, and Russian aggression against Ukraine and the resulting mass presence of Ukrainians as war refugees in Poland. The analysis showed that in the period in question, Poland does not have a comprehensive migration strategy. In situations of inflow of large numbers of foreigners, de- cisions of the Polish government are made ad hoc and confirm the thesis that the PiS government is unable to cope with new migration challenges. The source basis of the analysis are interpella- tions submitted by MPs from the West Pomeranian Province addressed to the Prime Minister, the Minister of Internal Affairs and Administration and the Minister of Education and Science. They are supplemented by laws and extensive literature on the subject.

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Refugee Crisis as a Motive for Political Communication in Poland

Author(s): Monika Ślufińska / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

The European debate on the refugee crisis and the related actions of the European Union has been an important part of the political communication undertaken by policy-makers in the EU countries. Thus, it seems essential to ask the question about the opinions of the most important Polish politicians regarding the causes and ways of managing the refugee crisis, but also about their stance regarding refugees coming from other cultures, and consequently whether they were in agreement on accepting refugees. Also, whether the opinions they expressed were likely to influence Polish society, and whether the problem of the refugee crisis was used for ad hoc political purposes, including in the election campaign.

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Response of the European Union on Return Directive and Readmission Agreements (RDRAs) on Nigerian Irregular Migrants

Author(s): Peter Odion Irabor / Language(s): English Issue: 17/2023

This study appraised the EU RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants and examined the challenges of RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants. The study made use of primary sources of data through in-depth interview conducted on EU delegation to Nigeria and ECOWAS, European External Action Service, Frontex, International Organisation for Migration, Idia Renaissance, Nigeria Immigration Service and the National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons. Findings from the study showed that two types of return directive exits; voluntary return and enforced return. Voluntary returnees are provided with Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) while enforced returnees are not provided with AVRR, and they are likely detained, escorted by the policemen through the back door and corridor of the airport and deported to Nigeria or transit countries. Findings from the study showed the challenges of RDRAs on Nigerian irregular migrants in that, most return carried out by the EU are not in compliance with the laid down regulation as some migrants are return to countries of transit. Moreover, the conditionality attached to readmission agreements are only applicable for highskilled migrants, a situation described as brain drain for Nigeria and brain gain for the EU. The study concluded that EU RDRAs are restrictive in nature which provide escape routes for irregular migrants in European countries, and that lack of compliance on RDRAs are the results of unlawful detention of Nigerian irregular migrants by the EU as well as torture and abuse by the security officials and traffickers, a situation that violate human rights.

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The Effect of Motivational Incentives and Time Perspectives on Predicting Youth Emigration Intentions and the Agency of Potential Migrants: The Case of Serbia

Author(s): Nada Polovina,Oliver Tošković,Dragana Gundogan / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2023

This article aims to test the predictive potential of frequently researched socio-demographic and motivational incentives and time perspectives as a still unexplored personal-level factor affecting the strength of youth emigration intentions and the agency of potential migrants (i.e., activities related to emigration). We tested the incremental validity of motivational incentives and time perspectives in predicting emigration intention and potential migrants’ agency, after accounting for sociodemographic variables. Furthermore, to strengthen the estimation of the effect of education on outmigration propensity, we included respondents’ grade attainment in their current educational level (upper secondary education), their highest intended level of education, and their parents’ level of education. Drawing on psychosocial conceptualisations (Bandura, 2001; Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999) this quantitative study was conducted on a representative sample of 1973 students enrolled in the final grade of upper secondary schools in Serbia. A three-step hierarchical multiple regression analysis was employed for this purpose. The results reveal that emigration intention, as well as potential migrants’ agency, cannot be predicted only based on socio-demographic characteristics. However, motivational incentives are important correlates of both emigration intention and migrants’ agency. Social motivational incentives tend to reduce both emigration intention and migrants’ agency, while economy-related motivational incentives tend to increase emigration intention and migrants’ agency. On the other hand, while time perspectives are not significantly related to emigration intention, they do appear as significant predictors of migrants’ agency. Concretely, present hedonistic and future time perspective orientations tend to increase migrants’ agency. The findings indicate the need for a more differentiated approach in theoretical, empirical and policy considerations.

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Facing the challenge of hospitality: Ukrainian refugees and local policy in a less developed region

Author(s): Alina Źróbek-Różańska,Elżbieta Zysk,Katarzyna Pawlewicz,Anna Źróbek-Sokolnik / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2024

Motivation: Since the beginning of the war, Poland has welcomed more than 1.5 million Ukrainian refugees. This new reality has put pressure on local authorities, especially those managing less developed, poorer regions with less experience in receiving immigrants, as they faced the sudden urge to accommodate the needs of these new arrivals.Aim: This article aims to present the profile, needs, and potential of people who have found refuge in less developed areas (i.e., Warmia and Mazury). It helps to anticipate and understand Ukrainian migration — as the influx of refugees has long-term effects, requiring local authorities to take action, i.e., to ensure the availability of social services. Integrating thousands of refugees requires careful planning, developed infrastructure, and funds. It is also worth considering the benefits of the potential of new residents. An- other purpose is to share objective knowledge on the effects of the ongoing war. Results: Through the research, it has been possible to obtain a great deal of information about people who found refuge in a less attractive area for migration. Profile of the immi- grant was created, and the needs in terms of social infrastructure and the set of advantages that immigrants can offer on the labor market were described.

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Exploring return intentions from the young migrant’s point of view

Author(s): Đula Borozan,Ivana Barković Bojanić,Mirna Leko Šimić / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2024

Purpose: This paper investigates migration behaviors of young migrants to identify the main factors influencing their return intentions. Recognizing that return migration decision-making is a complex and multidimensional process, the paper sheds light on two under-researched topics in migration literature: return migration intentions and young migrants. Methodology: Using a mixed theory approach that accounts for both individual and contextual factors as determinants of possible return, the paper utilizes data obtained through surveys of Croatian migrants. It proposes an ordered logit regression model based on three composite variables—economic success, social integration, and cultural shock—to calculate the return intention probability. Results: The results show that the variables of economic success, social integration, and cultural shock, which were determined through factor analysis, play a significant role in shaping return migration intentions. In particular, the perceived level of social integration has the most significant influence on the likelihood of intention to return, indicating that young migrants are not solely or predominantly motivated by economic factors. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the factors influencing migrants’ return intentions overlap, and as a result, no single theory is adequate for providing a comprehensive understanding of young migrants’ return intentions. For the majority of Croatian migrants, it seems that the myth of return does not exist; they do not plan to return. These findings constitute a valuable foundation for developing migration policy recommendations for both the host and home countries.

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Discursive Approaches to the Reception of Non-EU Migrants in Polish Official Political Discourse

Author(s): Claire Laurent,Elodie Thevenin / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2024

Poland has faced several crisis situations related to migration in the past decade. With differences in thescale and origins of incoming people, these crises have triggered various reactions from Polish policy-makers,from the welcoming of non-EU migrants to the implementation of restrictive measures at the Polish border.The present research uses a discursive approach to study the ways in which non-EU migrants are presentedand discussed in Poland. By comparing official discourses from Polish authorities during the 2015–2016migration crisis, the 2021 border crisis with Belarus and following the Russian war on Ukraine in 2022,we analyse how different groups of non-EU migrants are discursively described and considered by politicalfigures. Furthermore, as these crises have important links with the European Union (EU), we alsoinvestigate how Poland’s relationship with the EU is envisioned by Polish authorities. Through thediscourse analysis carried out, we argue that ‘migrants’ and ‘refugees’ are discursively constructed asopposing groups in a manner that is highly visible. This discursive strategy is instrumentally used to reflecton the perceived deservingness, alterity or proximity of incoming people. We identify one unifyingperspective of Poland’s relationship with the EU throughout these crises: Polish authorities are keen tostress the importance of its membership of the EU when benefiting from the latter’s restriction of migrationto Europe.

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Taking the Good with the Bad: Examining German Citizens’ Rosters of Immigrant Contact

Author(s): Daniel Herda / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2023

The character of an interaction between a citizen and an immigrant can shape outgroup attitudes. Any variety — whether positive or negative — matters, but what if someone accumulates experiences with both? Using data from the 2016 German ALLBUS, this study develops a roster of contact experiences through crosstabulation, permitting a detailed consideration of the totality and diversity of citizens’ immigrant exposure. Results indicate that most experience frequent positive contact coupled with rare negative experiences. Despite their infrequency within a typical roster, negative experiences are widespread. Both types predict anti-immigrant sentiment in selection-corrected multivariate regressions but in opposing and roughly symmetrical directions. However, their statistical interaction demonstrates that positive contact serves to both buffer against the consequences of negative contact and facilitate prejudice reduction among those experiencing the most negative contact. Overall, the results demonstrate encouragingly that real-world citizenimmigrant interactions in Germany generally take a form that promotes positive intergroup relations.

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Irregular Migration from Türkiye to The United States

Author(s): Emrah CENGİZ / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2024

The United States’ southern border has been witnessing a record increase in illegal entrance of Turkish citizens. According to the data provided by the United States border patrol, during the 2023 fiscal year, 15.542 Turkish citizens entered the country illegally through the United States-Mexican border. This number was under 100 per year over the last decade. Although it has not gotten much attention in media and academic circles, the rate of the increase in the number of Turkish citizens entering the United States illegally is alarming. While the main reasons of the high numbers of people migrating from Erdogan’s Türkiye include general insatiateness regarding economic and political problems, substandard working conditions and underdeveloped fundamental human rights protection system United States’ prestigious image in the world, strong economy and promising future can be counted among the main reasons that migrants prefer it as destination country. The surprising rise of Turkish citizens choosing Mexico as a transit country to enter the States is attributed to the transnational criminal organizations’ connections to Türkiye. The dire circumstances Turkish people experience and their endeavor to find a way to “get out of Türkiye” plays into the hands of cartels. The article points out this multilateral phenomenon and sets forth the push and pull factors, elaborating the involvement of transnational criminal organizations in Mexico.

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OVERVIEW ON THE 2015 MIGRANT CRISIS: MACEDONIAN CASE

Author(s): Katerina Klimoska / Language(s): English Issue: 45/2023

The paper attempts to give a basic overview of the 2015 formal legal framework for migrant crisis management, as well as present the Macedonian case as an example of compliance and need for further structural changes and approximations to European legislation in this area. An important issue in managing the migrant crisis is the definition/understanding of the notions related to migration.

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REGIONAL COOPERATION AS A KEY FACTOR FOR EFFICIENT MIGRATION MANAGEMENT

Author(s): Snezana Trajanovska / Language(s): English Issue: 45/2023

Migration is a complex and multifaceted process which has become one of the driving forces behind the strives for social and economic existence in the globalized world we live in. Motivated by various economic, social, and political factors, this phenomenon has been moulding human societies for centuries. In recent times, the Western Balkan region has witnessed a substantial influx of transit migrants and refugees and thus, it has become the main crossroads on their way towards a better life to the Western European countries. Despite the change in migration dynamics over the years, the migration phenomenon still remains a pressing issue for many Western European authorities. Given its gravity, migration management requires a comprehensive and holistic approach as well as enhanced regional cooperation of and with the region of Western Balkans. Namely, good cooperation, regular communication, coordination and exchange of experience and information among Western Balkan countries can significantly contribute to tackling migration challenges and succeeding in effective and efficient migration management.

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The migration phenomenon in the context of the principle of state sovereignty: selected issues

Author(s): Oktawia Braniewicz-Zaorska / Language(s): English Issue: 19/2024

The phenomenon of migration on a scale previously unknown after World War II shocked the countries belonging to the European Union. The surge of people seeking protection from persecution, better jobs, educational opportunities, and a desire to be reunited with families already living in the EU has led governments to consider fundamental issues. One of them was the principle of sovereignty and its impact on governments’ compliance with accepted international obligations. In many discussions, in my opinion, there was an erroneous juxtaposition of the idea of human rights with the principle of sovereignty, which led to an increase in nationalist sentiments and an escalation of hate speech against foreigners. This article aims to explain the key differences between the concepts of migrant and foreigner, the essence of the principle of sovereignty and its consequences, and the influence of the European Union on the traditional understanding of the state.

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Imigranci z Ukrainy w Polsce. Działania integracyjne na przykładzie samorządu województwa pomorskiego

Author(s): JOANNA LESKA-ŚLĘZAK,Jarosław Ślęzak / Language(s): Polish Issue: 31/2023

The purpose of the article is to analyze Poland’s migration policy with a particular focus onPoland’s immigration policy towards migrants from Ukraine on the example of the activities ofthe local government of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. Changes in Polish migration policy arepresented, the activities of the local government of Pomorskie Voivodeship aimed at adapta-tion and integration of immigrants/refugees from Ukraine into Polish society are presented.The article puts forward the thesis that changes in Polish migration policy are related to demo-graphic problems and the needs of the labor market in Poland. The migration crisis in 2015influenced changes in legal regulations facilitating the possibility for immigrants from Ukraineto settle and work in Poland. The Act of March 12, 2022 on assistance to citizens of Ukraine inconnection with the armed conflict on the territory of that country confirmed Poland’s open-ness to newcomers from Ukraine. In the Pomeranian Voivodeship, a resolution of the Board ofPome­ ra­ nian Voivodeship established a Task Force for Regional Migration Policy, whose tasksinclude the exchange of information, activities in the field of integration of immigrants, expe-rience between local, national and international local government units. In the DevelopmentStrategy of the Pomeranian Voivodeship 2030 in the strategic objective 2 “Open Regional Com-munity” – presents the essence of systemic integration of immigrants at the same time the pro-ject – “­ Pomerania with Ukraine” on counteracting the effects of the crisis caused by the armedconflict on the territory of Ukraine is implemented on an emergency basis.

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Confusing ignorance? The European refugee crisis in Polish textbooks

Author(s): Katarzyna Górak-Sosnowska / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2024

The European refugee crisis of 2015 had a profound impact not only policies, but also narratives related to migration. The article is aimed to analyse how the European refugee crisis was narrated in Polish textbooks on geography and civics – two subjects that cover contemporary socio-political events within their curricula. It looks at the textbooks not only as a source of information but also as a political and pedagogical mirror that reflects the ongoing discussions in society. The article builds on the vast scholarship on how the refugee crisis was narrated in Poland and investigates whether and to what extent the same patterns are reflected in the textbooks. Mixed methodology is used in the article to identify the main narratives and themes in the samples of Polish textbook. According to the study the narrations are less extreme and explicit than in the public discourse, they are also often incoherent and inconsistent, and hardly human-centred. While they are not explicitly politicized, they often replicate the main narrative frames from the media discourse.

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Governing Integration Policies in a Multi-Level Setting: Austria and Czechia Compared

Author(s): Anna Lukešová / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2024

In migration studies, scholars differ in their emphasis on which level of government plays the central rolein immigrant integration policies. There are voices drawing attention to a ‘local turn’, highlighting therising power of local actors in immigrant integration. At the same time, other authors point to a ‘nationalturn’, connected to the introduction of civic integration policies – or even the Europeanisation ofintegration policies coming from the supranational level. In order to better understand how integrationpolicies are governed, this article compares the Austrian and Czech governance of these policies,examining the relationship between the different levels of government involved. The analysis is based onScholten’s typology of centralist, localist, decoupling and multi-level forms of governance. It asks howintegration policies are governed in Austria and Czechia and how their governance changed with theimplementation of civic integration policies. While centralist and decoupling tendencies appeared in theAustrian case, a multi-level governance approach emerged with civic integration in Czechia. These resultsdisprove the assumption of a supposedly more likely multi-level governance approach in a federal stateand a more centralised logic under the unitary regime, as suggested by the literature.

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