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The impact of wars on the economy of countries: theoretical and practical aspects

Author(s): Zina Arsahanova,Yuriy Bokov,Alexander Larin / Language(s): English Issue: 03+04/2020

Wars leave deep traces in the country’s economy during and after the war, as well as social and psychological consequences. At the beginning of the economic consequences of war, there is a loss of labour. The withdrawal of skilled labour from the country due to the war, the reduction of the population as a result of injuries and deaths leads to serious losses in production and national income. The decline in production leads to inflation and the emergence of a «black» market, faced with difficulties in meeting the needs of the population, whose incomes are falling due to the war. The division of resources into army and defence needs during this period leads to bottlenecks in meeting the resource needs of many sectors, especially basic consumer goods. With war, it becomes impossible to provide new production tools, find loans, continue working without interruption in the face of possible enemy attacks, and increase production within the optimal norms of leasing. This study is intended to discuss the economic consequences of wars. The basic macroeconomic effects of war on the economy are discussed, and the economic costs of war through experiences of the most significant countries are explained with regard to World War I and II. The effects of the Syrian war on the Turkish economy are opened up, and political and economic recommendations are given.

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Tramping žije!

Author(s): Marta Edith Holečková / Language(s): Czech Issue: 1/2021

The monograph titled "Český tramping v časech formování a rozmachu" [Czech tramping in times of formation and upswing] (Prague: Academia, 2019), which is a work of five authors (Jan Krško, Jan Mareš, Jan Pohunek, Jan Randák and Jan Špringl), presents the phenomenon of tramping in the inter-war Czechoslovak Republic. In doing so, it focuses on the Czech lands and, in the reviewer’s opinion,offers a more or less basic mapping of the fluid and difficult-to-grasp social movement and also a specific subculture of young people, which were born out of romantic admiration of the American Wild West, forming their identity and lifestyle in a strong bond with nature, and were widely popular after the birth of Czechoslovakia in 1918. The authors describe, relatively well, the self-perception and topography of tramping, how tramps were spending their free time and clashing with state authorities, their identification against the “bourgeois” society, ironizing and moralizing of the tramping movement, the step-by-step politicization of some tramping groups, and the penetration of tramping into popular culture. On the other hand, the reviewer argues that the book does not explain ideological sources of the movement clearly enough and does not answer the question why the tramping movement became a phenomenon unique to Czechs and Slovaks.

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Hitler proti Habsburkům

Author(s): Marek Šmíd / Language(s): Czech Issue: 1/2021

The reviewed publication titled "Hitler a Habsburkové: Proč chtěl nacistický vůdce zničit rakouskou královskou rodinu" (Prague: Slovart, 2020), written by US journalist James M. Longo is a translation of the original work "Hitler and the Habsburgs: Führer’s Vendetta against the Austrian Royals" (New York: Diversion Books, 2018). The first third of the book is a parallel biography of Franz Ferdinand d’Este (1863–1914), heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) in Austria in the early 20th century. The other two parts describe the fates of children of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife, Countess Sophie Chotek, Princess of Hohenberg (1868–1914) – daughter Sophie (1901–1990) and sons Maximilian (1902–1962) and Ernst (1904–1954). As shown by the author and summarized by the reviewer, their lives were tragically affected by the assassination of their parents in Sarajevo and, in the case of both sons, also by persecution of the Nazi regime. In the reviewer’s opinion, the author is very well acquainted with sources, save for a few factual errors, his style is admirably vivid, and he provides inspiring evidence on how many noble families were actively resisting destructive totalitarian ideologies in the 20th century.

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Trilogie o Čechoslovácích v táborech Gulagu

Author(s): Milada Polišenská / Language(s): Czech Issue: 2/2021

In the three volumes published under the common title "Čechoslováci v Gulagu" [Czechoslovaks in the Gulag] (Prague, Česká televize – Ústav pro studium totalitních režimů 2017, 2018 and 2019), the authors Jan Dvořák, Jaroslav Formánek and Adam Hradilek chart the fate of Czechs and Slovaks who had been interned and in some cases executed in the Soviet camps in the period between the 1920s and 1950s (the first volume’s subtitle is "Životní osudy krajanů postižených politickými represemi v Sovětském svazu [Life Fate of the Compatriots Suffering Political Repressions in the Soviet Union], the two following volumes were both published with the subtitle "Příběhy krajanů popravených či vězněných v Sovětském svazu" [Stories of Compatriots Executed or Interned in the Soviet Union]). These were compatriots who had settled in the Soviet Union, immigrants who believed in communist ideas and arrived in the country, which was building communism, between the two world wars, refugees fleeing from Nazism after the German occupation of the Czech lands in March 1939, inhabitants of Subcarpathian Ruthenia after its annexation to the USSR or people dragged from Czechoslovakia by the Soviet security services after the liberation of the country in 1945. The three volumes have a uniform concept, structure as well as visual appearance and present in total thirty-six individual or collective stories. The book trilogy is directly linked to the three-part Czech TV documentary entitled "Čechoslováci v gulagu" [Czechoslovaks in the Gulag], broadcast in 2017, which was written and directed by Marta Nováková. The reviewer discusses the entire project, which she believes significantly contributes to our knowledge of this tragic chapter of Czechoslovak history and brings together some extraordinary stories of the victims of the Stalinist regime. She also appreciates the visual form of the publication with its numerous unique photographs and reproduced documents, seeing it as an equally important part of the publications. She expresses some reservations about the work’s concept and raises issues for further research on this theme.

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Transformácia českého robotníctva od nacizmu k socializmu

Author(s): Adam Šumichrast / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 2/2021

For some period after the fall of the Communist regime in Czechoslovakia, the history of workers and the labour movement have been marginalized in the local historiography. The reviewer notes with gratitude that with the publishing of the extensive synthetic work of Dušan Janák, Stanislav Kokoška and a team of their collaborators entitled "Průmyslové dělnictvo v českých zemích v letech 1938–1948" [Industrial Workers in the Czech Lands in 1938–1948] (Prague, Ústav pro soudobé dějiny AV ČR, v. v. i., 2019) this situation changes considerably. The publication captures the transformation of Czech labour during the critical decade from the end of the First Republic to the establishment of the communist regime, which included six months of the authoritative Second Republic, six years of German occupation in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and three years of a limited democracy in the Third Republic. The fairly comprehensive narration describes, among other things, the organization of industrial workers and the development of trade unions, their relationship with the changing political regimes and employers, the social policy towards the workers, the workers’ position in enterprises or the strike movement. The reviewer partly challenges the text’s division into two parts dealing separately with the periods of the Protectorate and the Third Republic, which does not encourage comparative thinking on the issue and tracing long-term continuities, and points to the conceptual inconsistency in their elaboration. However, the book summarizes the existing knowledge of the issue and provides a great deal of information from archival research.

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Zásadný posun vo výskume dejín slovenského štátu

Author(s): Michaela Lenčéšová / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 2/2021

The reviewer sets the monograph of the Slovak historian Miloslav Szabó, entitled "Klérofašisti: Slovenskí kňazi a pokušenie radikálnej politiky" [Clerical fascists: Slovak clergy and the temptation of radical policy (1935–1945)] (Bratislava, Slovart 2019), in the context of contemporary transnational research works and debates on the relation between Catholicism and fascism in the twentieth century. The author drews inspiration from the methodological tools of research into hybrid forms of fascism and from the concept of clerical fascism, which he applied to the environment of the Slovak Christians, mainly Catholic clerics, in the late period of the First Czechoslovak Republic and during the Slovak State (1939–1945). He traces their ideological and political radicalization, describes the dynamics of the development of their opinions, placing them in the context of the changes in the ideological and political climate. Using specific examples, he also outlines a typology of a clerical fascist activist, an extremist and a martyr. The reviewer sees the first type, characterized by a more or less tactical shift towards fascism and the Ludak regime and probably predominant among the Slovak clergy, as the most productive area for research. According to the reviewer, the author takes the research on the issue further thanks to his approach and knowledge. Finally, the reviewer raises the question of the applicability of the concept of clerical-fascism to the Czech Catholic environment of the first half of the twentieth century.

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Pohyblivé hranice diktatury ve světle stížností občanů

Author(s): Tomáš Vilímek ,Václav Rameš / Language(s): Czech Issue: 1/2022

In the introductory essay to the thematic section “Citizen Complaints in Communist Czechoslovakia”, the authors present the theoretical background of this project as well as foreign research into complaints made to official institutions in communist dictatorships (especially in the German Democratic Republic and the Soviet Union). They draw on the concept of the “shifting boundaries of dictatorships” that has emerged in German historiography since the 1990s in an attempt to clarify the embeddedness of communist rule in the interactions and interrelationships between power structures and society in the GDR and how it played out primarily in the space of the everyday. As an authentic and largely preserved source, citizen complaints provide a number of valuable impulses for the analysis of the functioning of the communist system and the problems that resonated in society, despite their considerable degree of subjectivity. In doing so, they focus on the main interpretative frameworks for interpreting this type of source as inspired by foreign research. The first framework interprets complaints and suggestions as a specific, “top-down” directed way of resolving and dampening social conflicts, which in principle did not undermine the position of the ruling party, but on the contrary supported it. As soon as this method stopped meeting the expectations raised, however, it ceased to function as a “safety valve” and may have contributed to the destabilization of the system. Another scholarly approach views grievances more as a tool for advancing personal and group interests, in which space for negotiation opened up and in which the pragmatic use of ritualized language was applied. In this context, the authors conclude that the purposeful appropriation and use of ideological discourse had an ambivalent effect on the stability of communist rule and depended mainly on how rigidly or flexibly the official institutions were able to respond. The authors find the approach of analysing shifts in the content and style of grievances particularly productive, as it attempts to reconstruct changes in communist everyday life, values, attitudes and the collective mentality of actors. The last part of the text presents the terminology and methodology used by the authors in their research project "Pohyblivé hranice diktatury ve světle stížností a anonymních dopisů československých občanů v letech 1948 až 1989" [The Shifting Boundaries of Dictatorship in the Light of Complaints and Anonymous Letters from Czechoslovak Citizens Between 1948 and 1989] and introduces the articles in the thematic section.

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Jozef Tiso pohledem polského historika a diplomata

Author(s): Aleš Černý / Language(s): Czech Issue: 1/2022

The subject of the review is a biography of the Slovak Catholic priest and politician Jozef Tiso (1887–1947). Tiso was the head of the independent Slovak Republic from 1939 to 1945 under the patronage of Nazi Germany and was executed as a collaborator in April 1947, following a judgment of the National Court in Bratislava. The book "Kněz prezidentem: Slovensko Jozefa Tisa" [Priest as President: Jozef Tiso’s Slovakia] is a translation of the Polish original "Słowacja księdza-prezydenta: Jozef Tiso 1887–1947" (Kraków, Znak 2015). Its author, Andrzej Krawczyk, is a Polish historian and diplomat, the former ambassador to the Czech Republic and then to Slovakia. The reviewer criticizes the publication for its factual shortcomings but sees its contribution in its new perspectives and interesting questions as well as in its very readable presentation. In the reviewer’s opinion, the author is well versed in the modern history of the territory of the former Czechoslovakia and does not deviate from the role of an unbiased observer. In the dispute between Tiso’s historical apologists and critical biographers, however, Krawczyk is much closer to the latter group. He considers the first Slovak president to be a moderate conservative politician looking for a compromise, but also gives evidence of Tiso’s anti-Semitism, his responsibility for the alliance with Nazi Germany, and of his conscious participation in the Holocaust of Slovak Jews.

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Nová Tisova biografia nedosahuje úroveň dnešného historického poznania

Author(s): Miloslav Szabó / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 1/2022

The subject of the review is a biography of the Slovak Catholic priest and politician Jozef Tiso (1887–1947). Tiso was the head of the independent Slovak Republic from 1939 to 1945 under the patronage of Nazi Germany and was executed as a collaborator in April 1947, following a judgment of the National Court in Bratislava. The book "Kněz prezidentem: Slovensko Jozefa Tisa" [Priest as President: Jozef Tiso’s Slovakia] is a translation of the Polish original "Słowacja księdza-prezydenta: Jozef Tiso 1887–1947" (Kraków, Znak 2015). Its author, Andrzej Krawczyk, is a Polish historian and diplomat, the former ambassador to the Czech Republic and then to Slovakia. According to the reviewer, the attempt to show the personality of Jozef Tiso in an objective light, without demonizing or praising him, is sincere and sympathetic, but unfortunately the author contributes almost no new findings to our understanding of Tiso. Moreover, the terminological ambiguity prevents him from grasping the dynamics of Tiso’s ideological development. The book includes several factual errors and some contradictions, which cannot be justified even by the fact that this is not a scholarly study, but rather a popular publication intended for a foreign audience.

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Pokus o objektívny pohľad na Jozefa Tisa

Author(s): Michaela Lenčéšová / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 1/2022

The book "Kněz prezidentem: Slovensko Jozefa Tisa" [Priest as President: Jozef Tiso’s Slovakia] is a translation of the Polish original "Słowacja księdza-prezydenta: Jozef Tiso 1887–1947" (Kraków, Znak 2015). Its author, Andrzej Krawczyk, is a Polish historian and diplomat, the former ambassador to the Czech Republic and then to Slovakia. According to the reviewer, the book has a rather compilatory character, as it is based mainly on published sources and contains some outdated and now obsolete theses. When Krawczyk stresses Tiso’s pragmatism, his search for compromises and moderation when compared with local fascist radicals, he wrongly assumes that this meant that Tiso did not try to link Catholicism with Nazism. In his quest for objectivity, the author often, but not very successfully, puts himself in the role of an arbiter in the dispute among Slovak historians over the interpretation of certain events and burdens his work with moralizing judgements that do not promote historical understanding.

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Uloga mekteba u očuvanju maturidijskog akaidskog učenja u Bosni i Hercegovini (1900-1950)

Author(s): Vahid Fazlović / Language(s): Bosnian Issue: 89/2022

A study of aqaid, as a fundamental Islamic traditional science, holds a primary place in all the institutions and at all the levels of religious education: in maktabs, madrasas, in Islamic studies taught at civil schools as well as in the highest educational institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This article focuses upon the role of maktab in preserving the continuity of teachings of the Maturidi School of aqaid in the first half of the twentieth century. It also gives an account of notable efforts made by our religious and other leaders in assuring that Bosniaks, starting from the earliest point, are given the opportunity, in the new system of different cultural, ideological and social values, to learn the tenants of Islamic faith and traditional way of living. Thus all the innovative concepts of teaching the maktab class, throughout this period, authentically preserved the faith (aqidah) and religious practice (fiqh) of Ahli Sunnah, Hanefi-Maturidi in the same form as it was inherited from the Ottoman times.

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Wszechobecni „wrogowie ludu”. Pierwszy proces moskiewski w świetle socjalistycznego „Robotnika”.

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Wszechobecni „wrogowie ludu”. Pierwszy proces moskiewski w świetle socjalistycznego „Robotnika”.

Author(s): Ewa Pejaś / Language(s): Polish Issue: 689/2022

Nachalne kłamstwa radzieckiej propagandy podczas wielkiej czystki były możliwe za sprawą nieprawdopodobnego zastraszenia społeczeństwa przez aparat represji. Polscy socjaliści słusznie powiązali stalinowski terror z ustrojem totalitarnym, który dyktatora stawia ponad prawem.

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Serbările Restaurației în județul Neamț

Author(s): Mihai-Andrei Nica / Language(s): Romanian Issue: XXXVII/2021

The royal solemnity has been an object of interest of each of the Romanian monarchs, however, it did gain a new dimension during the reign of King Carol II of Romania by using innovative elements which augmented the overall luxury. The importance assigned by the sovereign to public ceremonies has several causes. First and foremost, there is a certain tradition regarding solemnity and the royal family. Such public manifestations that were upheld during King Carol I and the future king’s attendance thereto have certainly placed a certain influence over the latter. Furthermore, Carol also attended public solemnities as heir prince, and the coronation of King Ferdinand on October 15, 1922 is a landmark for royal ceremonies in Romania. Public manifestations in other European countries during the interwar period, even for totalitarian states, have also exerted an influence on Carol. Passionate about the ceremonial luxury and parade uniforms and as such, he closely followed such events.Once returned to the country in June 1930, Carol II has taken upon himself to pose as a saviour, due to the crisis of the monarchy as an institution, corroborated with the economic crisis and the decline of political life. This particular stance has been promoted in the next years in various ways and this aspect has also been apparent during public ceremonies. The Restauration Jubilees have quickly become the most representative royal ceremonies during Carol II’s reign. Such manifestations had the purpose to legitimize Carol’s return on the 6th of June, 1930 and his proclamation as a king of Romania on the 8th of June, 1930, given that the reigning royal at that time was his underage son, Michael. In his conception, the Restauration Jubilees had to be prioritized against other royal ceremonies, therefore the protocol of the manifestations for the anniversary of the restauration would gradually be augmented year by year, against other national holidays.Despite the heightened importance that the sovereign has imposed on the Restauration Jubilee, public manifestations that were dedicated to this event have only been held in Bucharest, however, as of 1935, they became mandatory on a national level. The Restauration Jubilee also gained a special place in Neamț County, setting a lower scale representation of the capital’s festivities.

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Podstawy prawne nauczania religii w szkołach w okresie kształtowania się II Rzeczpospolitej

Author(s): Mieczysław Różański / Language(s): Polish Issue: 54/2021

After the issue of the act of November 5th, 1916, which announced the creation of the Polish state by the German and Austro-Hungarian emperors, the new administration began to be established (in agreement with the occupation authorities) in the areas of the former Russian partition. Creation of legal acts which were to become the basis for the future independent state began. The Polish authorities took over, i.a. school management. The article aims to reveal, based on normative acts, what the legal basis for teaching religion in primary and secondary schools was. First, the orders of the occupying military authorities were presented. Then, the normative acts issued by the Polish administration were analyzed (temporary regulations concerning elementary schools). The issues of administrative management of education were regulated, which was taken from the Galician model and consisted of the District School Council and school supervision, with the clergy as members of all these organs. Supervision of Jewish religious education and principles of financing Jewish religious schools was also determined. Teaching religion was one of the subjects taken orally at the 4th and 6th-grade exams, the secondary school-leaving exams and the final exams of the teachers’ seminar. These regulations were accepted after Poland regained independence and became the basis for further regulations in the independent state.

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Oči koje su gledale unutra: Uz osamdesetu godišnjicu tragične smrti najvećeg srpskog slikara moderne, Save Šumanovića (1896 — 1942)

Author(s): Stevan Kostić / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 1/2022

This article is about the life of painter Sava Šumanović, who was executed 80 years ago (on 30 August 1942) at the Orthodox cemetery in Sremska Mitrovica, together with 120 other citizens of Šid, the city in which he spent his most important formative years. His body was never found to be burried. Šumanović is one of the most publically known victims of the Ustashe regime of the WWII in Yugoslavia. This paper does not discuss Šumanović's artistic contribution but rather the social and political context in which he worked and circumstances that led to his tragic death by brutal execution in front of a firing squad. Paintings and other Šumanović's works are today available in cities that had been connected to him through his life: in Paris (in which he lived on three occasions), Zagreb (in which he studied), Belgrade (the place of his last exhibition, just before the beginning of the war in 1941), Novi Sad (Pavle Beljanski Collection of Arts) and in Šid – where he was most productive as painter. His works were donated to Sava Šumanović Gallery in Šid, through donation by his mother, Persida Šumanović. This article is based on original sources such as Šumanović's personal letters, available from Milan Vereš's personal collection, as well as interviews, newspaper and TV archives, memoirs and biographies of Sava Šumanović.

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Korüfee ja tema kirjad

Author(s): Sirje Olesk / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 01/2012

Review of: Artur Adson. Friedebert Tuglas. Paaži ja Felixi kirjavahetus 1917-1944. Tallinn: Underi ja Tuglase Kirjanduskeskus, 2011. 614 lk.

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Grenzgänger und Entsandte: Polnische Mitarbeiter und Delegierte bei der International Labour Organization, 1919–1950

Author(s): Natali Stegmann / Language(s): German Issue: 3/2022

As recent research has shown, the newly founded Polish state cooperated closely with the International Labour Organization (ILO), which was simultaneously established in Geneva (as part of the Versailles order). Against this backdrop, the present article focusses on the personnel involved in this cooperation, and therefore on two individual groups. The first smaller group consists of the permanent staff in Geneva and in Warsaw. Their fates are examined under the circumstances of several system changes: during the democratic regime, during the authoritarian regime after the Piłsudski coup of 1926, and during World War II towards the seizure of power by the Communists. As representatives of a highly educated elite of cosmopolitan internationals, those employees were increasingly marginalized, especially since the fundamental idea of the ILO, the preservation of peace through compliance with social standards, was sustainably questioned by the system changes. The second larger group in focus consists of those delegated by the Polish government to the annual conferences of the ILO, the International Labour Conferences (ILC). In accordance with the principle of tripartism, representatives of employers, employees and the government, each accompanied by experts, were sent to the conferences. From 1926, a largely identical group was sent to Geneva, and this led to an almost complete amalgamation of the functional and political elite. This finding applies to all three categories of representatives. Overall, the system change of 1926 did not have a direct effect on the employees. With regard to the delegates, however, the new regime used a stategy of appropriation. The work of both groups was interrupted during World War II; afterwards, the surviving participants could hardly continue with the old structures only on a very limited scale.

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Čehoslovački savez u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji od propasti Čehoslovačke 1939. do okupacije Jugoslavije 1941.

Author(s): Marijan Lipovac / Language(s): Croatian Issue: 5-6/2021

The Czech and Slovak minorities had a common umbrella organization since 1921, the Czechoslovak Union in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1921 in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) whose activities were largely defined by the political relations between Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia and their interior organization. The work of the Czechoslovak Union was fatally affected by the events in Czechoslovakia, which ceased to exist in March 1939. This put an end to the assistance of Czechoslovak institutions to the Czechs and Slovak sin Yugoslavia, whose organizations continued to operate in the spirit of unity and cooperation between the two nations. The leadership of the Czechoslovak Union and its president, František Smetánka, joined a secret operation to help refugees from the occupied Czechia who were coming to Yugoslavia, from where they moved to other countries and joined Czechoslovak volunteer units. As a result, they came under attack of the German authorities and in August 1940, Stanislav Veselý, secretary of the Czechoslovak Union, and several other activists, were arrested and extradited to Germany and later ended their lives in concentration camps. Representatives of the Czech minority welcomed the establishment of the Banovina of Croatia in August 1939 because in the past 20 years they supported the demands of Croats to restore their statehood and to get recognition of national identity, which also enabled a better solution to the life problems of the Czech minority. It was also opportune because the Czechs could no longer rely on the support of their old homeland. With the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia in April 1941, the work of Czech societies and schools was banned, so the Czechoslovak Union would resume work at the end of World War II in October 1944 in Daruvar.

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Sreten Marić i sukob na književnoj levici

Author(s): Predrag Brebanović / Language(s): Serbian Issue: 1/2022

The paper deals with Sreten Marić (1903–1992), the reception of his work and its cultural and political implications. In accordance with Svetozar Petrović’s interpretation, the starting point are the neglected and never reprinted texts that Marić published in Zagreb and Belgrade in the period from 1936 to 1945. The texts are viewed in the context of the Yugoslav conflict on the literary left. After the analysis of their content and status, the final part of the paper offers a detailed insight into the reasons as to why Marić is read as one of the most prominent Serbian essayists of the second half of the 20th century.

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