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The article deals with the activities of an important fraternity of pastors from Spiš (Szepes, Zips) region founded in 1204 who resided in Levoča (Lőcse, Leutschau), especially with the work of one of its members, Christoph Petschmessingsloer. In addition to providing information on the life of the author of The Praise for the Art of Poetry (Laudes artis poeticae) from 1461, the study describes the circumstances of the origin of this work. The greatest attention is paid to an analysis of the text of this lecture on the art of poetry and an assessment of its rhetorical characteristics that represented an introduction to Satires by the Roman satirist Decimus Junius Juvenalis. For its first part, the poetic praise of art and poetry is characteristic; the second part speaks of rhetorical and poetic technique, verse forms together with terms of poetic expression. The work is concluded with a mythological story inspired by Ovid's Metamorphoses about nine muses that represent nine human activities and methods of the acquisition of knowledge.
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The author analyzes the Chronicle as an exceptionally important source for the study of the germs of ethnological thought among Croats. Although created in the remote 13th century, the Chronicle reveals some of its author’s preoccupations which have parallels in contemporary ethnology. Among other things, Toma Archdeacon was interested in the elthnogenesis of Croats. He attempted to solve the riddle with the help of Various written sources, oral traditions and partly by own speculations. His methods reveal a serious and honest approach to solving problems. An interesting part of the Chronicle contains an exhaustive description of the Tatars, being the oldest account on a foreign people in Croatian historical literary sources.
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This article reexamines the evidence of Jewish presence in Poland from the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries in connection with problems of origins, periodization, and localization of Jewish settlement in Poland. It deals inter alia with questions regarding the balance between Jewish and Christian evidence, as well as with reports of Jewish presence from neighboring areas of Eastern Europe such as Kievan Rus’. The reevaluation of evidence on medieval Polish Jews helps to illuminate the origins of eastern Ashkenazi Jewry, as well as to clarify diverse aspects of the history of early Eastern Europe. Thus, for example, among the most important general conclusions is the lack of continuity across three waves of Jewish migration and settlement in Poland. Since most Polish Jews were descendants of the third wave of Jewish migration into Poland, there is little doubt that the vast majority of them came from Germany and Bohemia, mostly via Silesia. We can also reliably conjecture that the Jewish population of southwestern Rus’—whatever its origins (possibly also at least partially Ashkenazi) and size (possibly reduced by the Mongol conquest)— came to be integrated with immigrants from the west due to the eastward expansion of Lithuania and Poland during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Thus, most modern Ashkenazi Jewry must go back to the melding of these two communities.
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Scottish sources suggest that the Scottish king, Robert I, left instructions to his commanders on his deathbed for how war with England should be fought in the years to follow. Although it is unclear as to whether this “testament” was based on any sort of reality, or was simply a literary creation of later years, it is referred to commonly in Scottish historiography as something of a manual for the Scots, based upon the lessons learned by their warrior king. In the years after Robert I’s death, however, the Scots lost three battles in fourteen years, and would go on to lose more examples in the decades to follow. Historians of medieval Scotland have, therefore, deduced that those Scottish military leaders who had gathered around their king’s deathbed either ignored or forgot the advice of their king. This article aims to challenge this dominant historiographical view of the military history of this period of conflict, with particular focus given to the Second Scottish War of Independence (1332–1357). It will reconsider the extent to which the Scots adhered to the testament of “Good King Robert”, and the degree to which they continued the type of war that their king had fought during his own time. It will re-examine the main battles of this second conflict with England and re-assess the extent to which the results of these set pieces should be seen as the dominant factors in relation to this period of war. Ultimately, this article will reconsider the extent to which lessons were indeed learned by Scottish commanders during the Second War of Independence, and the degree to which Scottish commanders, rather than abandoning hard-learned past lessons, instead prosecuted a style of war that aligned closely with the warfare advocated by Robert I.
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Uwagi na temat budownictwa warownego zakonu niemieckiego w późnośredniowiecznych Prusach
The article constitutes a collection of remarks concerning military aspects of the construction and functioning of the Teutonic castle in Bezławki (Bayselauken, Bäslack) in the last decades of the 14th century. Speculations included in the article refer to opinions expressed by the authors of the collective monograph about the late medieval settlement complex in Bäslack published in 2013. It presents the findings of archeological research in the castle and the village in the years 2008-2012. Remarks presented in the article concern three out of six problems which are considered the most essential. While it goes beyond doubt that the castle played an important defensive role, the hypothesis of it being a “fortified camp” for the army during military actions of the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and Ruthenians has been undermined. It is not possible to consider it to play a military role on a significant strategic level, as do the authors of the monograph of 2013. In the second part of the article the author undermines the hypothesis about the “systematic” character of the complex of fortifications situated on the eastern Prussian border. If the castle in Bäslack was indeed part of some defensive system, it could operate on the local level and consist of an insignificant number of elements including longitudinal fortifications constituting the so called “Landwehr”. The next issue addressed by the author was a problem of the typology of the term “wildhaus”. As in the 14th century the term connoted the location of the fortification on the border of the forest, the author shows a far-reaching morphological diversity of fortifications on the eastern outskirts of the Prussian state, which were or could be classified as “wildhauses”. Thus, a “wildhaus” cannot be classified as a morphological type of a fortification. The typology of fortifications based on the morphological criteria cannot be connected with the typology based on the administrative and terminological criteria. Archeological examination of the Bäslack fortification evinces its major cognitive potential and makes us aware of how little is known about the functioning of minor fortifications in late medieval Prussia. Further research in this field belongs to one of the most important elements of historical science in the Prussian regional dimension and related branches of science.
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The rich material of bronze items produced by local masters on the territory of medieval Latvia testifies to a high level of metalworking skills. The diversity of artefacts increased during this period, as imported objects were often used as samples for local imitations. Bronze bowls are part of the applied arts that flourished in the course of these two centuries; they are common in various European regions and have caught the interest of art historians not so much due to their form but because of the iconography of their engravings. There was quite a high demand for such bowls and the numbers found continue to grow in excavations, even if their origins and function remain unclear. Another complex issue is that of the relationships between the paradigm-setting centre and periphery because there are no known written sources of the time describing bowl making. However, the high level of bronze processing allows us to assume they could have been made anywhere with a larger concentration of finds. All bowls are made of tin bronze. Their forms are quite similar. They consist of a slightly thickened round base from which thinly forged sidewalls rise up to 5–6 cm, and an upper edge about 1 cm wide. The diameter of bowls is about 20 to 30 cm. These vessels could be either decorated or plain but their classification is based on the content of the interior engravings. The issue of datingAll known artefacts are dated from the second half of the 11th century to the 13th century when bowls were especially popular; they were no longer made after that. It remains dubious whether such bowls already existed in the first half of the 11th century. None of the vessels found so far has any year number allowing for further assumptions. The same can be said of signs suggesting any development. Therefore, the grouping and systematisation of these finds has so far been unsuccessful. Different explanations of the origins and function of bowlsThe origins of bowlmaking are usually related to monasteries where monks became the sole experts and keepers of the classical cultural heritage. Monasteries were probably responsible for iconographic samples while the bowls could be made by town craftsmen; merchants who distributed the ware were townspeople too. In the late 19th century, researchers interpreted these bowls in the context of sacred art, seeing them as either christening bowls or vessels for the collection of donations. The researcher Josepha Weitzmann-Fiedler related the origin of bowls to the ritual of confession and purification of the soul performed by nuns. No less popular is the hypothesis about the bowl as a decorative interior item. The form of the vessel was adaptable to polyfunctional use while the large numbers of finds demonstrate that it was a highly demanded good ending up in various social strata. The latest research emphasise the use of bowls for hand washing. IconographyThe complex iconography of inside engravings derived from both Greco-Roman mythology and Christianity endows bronze bowls with particular value. Winged youth was a common image and the so-called bowls of virtues and vices with Latin inscriptions are also often found. Insight into the local historiography Eastern Baltic bronze bowls became the focus of attention right after the finding of the so-called bowl of Otto the Great discovered in Viljandi (Estonia) in 1886. Jelgava painter and librarian Julius Döring made a drawing of the precious find and published it and historian Hermann von Bruiningk provided an analysis. At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, art historian Wilhelm Neumann turned his attention to bronze bowls, stating that they had come from Western Germany between Aachen and Cologne. Archaeologist Tatjana Pāvele wrote about bronze bowls 50 years later. She concluded from a broader historical perspective that bronze bowls indicate that “active trading with Western Europe was going on in the 11th–13th century”.Bowls found in Latvia Bowls are largely held in the collections of the Riga History and Navigation Museum and the Latvian National History Museum; in addition, two fragments of bronze bowls from Latvia are in the Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte Berlin. Riga is the place where the most impressive and luxurious bowls have been discovered – precious items imported from Europe, featuring high-quality execution of the vessel and its décor. These artefacts could have ended up in Riga in the late 12th or early 13th century when the most active contacts formed with the potential centres of their origin – Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia. Two bowls are thematically part of the so-called group of vices. The top-quality example features a crowned superbia image in the centre with five surrounding vices – IDOLA–TRIA (idolatry), INVI–DIA (hate, envy), ӿ IR–A ӿ (rage, revenge), LVXV–RIA (luxury) and LIB–IDO (lust). The second bowl can be interpreted as a modified and simplified version of the vices vessel, with the main image of a winged figure – angel – while the inscription has been lost. This piece can be said to exemplify an intermediary phase and was probably made at some workshop near Riga, considering the local craftsmen’s high level of skills. Among the most valuable pieces is a bowl rich in representational elements, featuring a rhythmical procession of knights; this vessel was taken out of Latvia in 1940. A thematically rare example is a bowl with a bird similar to a gryphon. Several bronze bowls have been discovered in Latvia in archaeological excavations: two were found in a burial ground in Liepenes (Krimulda) while one emerged from the Pūteļi graveyard (Turaida), placed at the foot of the deceased together with other valuable items. During restoration, a forged rosette consisting of about 1 mm large dots and lines was discovered on the bowl. Conclusions The total number of bronze bowls found in Latvia so far is eight to nine (some fragments are hard to define): five of them are engraved, four appear to lack engraving, although such a conclusion has emerged due to their fragmentary condition. The bowls are similar with regard to their form but they do not make up a homogenous group. Two bowls found in Riga stand out for their narrative message: the so-called superbia with surrounding vices and the procession of knights; both are thought to be imported. These items belong to high-quality pieces in the context of Latvia but also reflect characteristics typical of mass production. The next group consists of two bowls also found in Riga whose engravings reveal the transformations resulting from the long route of dissemination, pointing towards a peripheral origin. The last group is made up of bowls uncovered in archaeological excavations. It is noteworthy that all four bowls were discovered in the burial grounds of the Liv people near the River Gauja; no such finds have emerged so far in either Latvian or Lithuanian archaeological materials elsewhere.
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The article discusses the peace treaty of 1219 between the Lithuanian and the Volhynian dukes retold in the Chronicle of Galicia-Volhynia, and reviews the historiography of this treaty. Te retold treaty is compared with contemporary and later treaties, proving that the treaty of 1219 must have been in a written form; the article also discusses its structure. Special attention is paid to the group of the Lithuanian first five dukes: based on the grammatical analysis of the formulas of the 13th–14th century treaties, the article concludes that the word старѣшеи, written in its forefront, applies only to Živinbutas, listed as the frst among the five.
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In the 13th century Anatolian architecture, both the appearance and the decoration programs and the portals as important building elements that inform about the ornamentation characteristics of the period. The Anatolian Seljuk civilization continues its existence with its numerous architectural structures and elements of decoration. decorations which are generally independent or in the form of continuation of each other were used in 13th century. the architectural compositions of Anatolian Seljuk period. The part of the door, starting from the starting points of the corner pillars and forming the concave part, surrounding from outside, generally adorned areas are called siege arches. Various compositions that reflect the period features are used in the siege arches, which are a different architectural element with their massive appearances and decorative characteristics. The ornaments on the siege arches show differences in parallel to the number of the arch structure, shape and number of slices. In general, the siege arches which are suitable for the decoration program of the door are very attractive in some examples.
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With Malazgirt Victory in 1071 Turks migration began to Anatolia and Islam had found a new expansion field in the hands of Turks and spreading of Islam in Anatolia had accelerated in the period of Principalities and especially Seljuks, Anatolian Seljuks. But in the 13.centuries Mongolian influence which occurred in Central Asia and then affected to Anatolia, led to people different searches. Mongolians had vandalized where they gone through, therefore; a completely crisis period had began to in Anatolia. Especially in this period most of dervishes who got of Yesevi doctrines had immigrated to Anatolia and began to tell Islam with different ways to the people. This saints who came from Central Asia, dwelled upon to doctrines and emphasized that Islam is not a fear religion it is a love religion,and to fall for love to God rather than fear of God. In this way; this Yesevi dervishes who came from Central Asia, helped to people who fallen into crisis process and easily overcome from this process, also they exposed excellent and experienced human type with the help of advice which they gave to people in their works. In this study, in the century of 13 Religious-Sufism Folk Poetry ethical components were exposed and three great poets were examined who lived in the century of 13, such as Hacı Bektaş-ı Veli, Yunus Emre, Said Emre and also, common components which related with the ethical understandings were classified and commented on finding discoveries.
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Although Alā ad-Dīn Kayqubād, sultan of Saljuks of Turkey, had sent Altunaba firstly as an envoy due to forge friendships and later Kamāl ad-Dīn Kamyar to Jalāl al-Dīn Manguberdi, the relations between the two sultas turned into hostility after a while because of Manguberdi’s discountenance. Jalāl al-Dīn Manguberdi, who had just arrived in the region, was trying to establish new alliances in his own way, and the Emir of Erzurum, Jihān-Shāh, was one of the biggest supporters of Jalāl al-Dīn Manguberdi. Alā ad-Dīn Kayqubād tried to form an alliance against Manguberdi by making an agreement with the Ayyubids. However, as time passed, the tension between the two sides increased and the Battle of Yassiçemen took place in 1230. Jalāl al-Dīn Manguberdi was defeated in this war. This situation shows that Malazgirt has never been captured by the Khwarazmians. Sultan Alā ad-Dīn Kayqubād captured the territory of Jihān-Shāh, malik of Erzurum, who declared his loyalty and helped Jalāl al-Dīn Manguberdi, and so that Erzurum region was dominated by the Seljuks of Turkey. Then Alā ad-Dīn Kayqubād, as a result of the relations, showing a negative trend with the Ayyubids, sent Altunaba, Kamāl adDīn Kamyar and Mubariz ad-Dīn Çavlı, of his important commander, over Ahlat in 1232 Ahlat and Ahlat was annexed by the Seljuks of Turkey in 1232.
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Masnavis in Turkish literature has an important role in enabling independent rhyme and long narrating articles. Masnavis writers have not only written concerns of aesthetics but also on behalf of the community development process some messages are also in the works. Given the conditions of in the 14th century period it can be seen in many of the masnavis contain “scientific” and “moral” values. Masnavi, is the verse form in the literature of each couplet rhyming each other and it ranges two couplets to thousands of couplets. Being the rhyming couplets of Masnavi are independent it is suitable for writing a verse form long stories.
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In the 13th century Ottomans established the Turkish principalities in Anatolia, took power and were able to land on the basis of the Byzantine statehood. To be able to state the Ottomans at the same time also become neighbors with Byzantium.That work that complicated, but also intercultural exchange of the border easily and as often happened - one of the ends of the 14th century in the Ottoman Empire - tackles social life that took place in the Byzantine end. Our work in this context: a general assessment was made and the border - an entry dealt with the concept of the end; The arrival of the Ottomans in Anatolia and the Byzantine border settlement with 14 first part described the relationship with the political situation of the Ottoman Empire and the Byzantine Empire in the century; In the 14th century it is composed of Ottoman and Byzantine Lead happened in the second section summarizes results and recovered a section that described the social life also described in details.
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Kypchak Turkish was used in two different geographical regions. On one hand, It became the language of the Kypchak who lived in today’s Russia, Ukraine and Caucasian which had been in Golden Horde between 13th – 15th centuries, it was used to write Codex Cumanicus by the Italian and the German, on the other hand again in this area it created a written language developed with Armenian letters in long centuries, and also it continued as not only spoken language but also written language in Egypt and Syria and as the literary language of Muslim Memluk Kypchak from the middle of 13th century to the beginning of 16th language. There are some phonetic and stylistic differences among the languages of these three different societies. It is predicted that that the work was translated by Charles Fraser who had started to work as the assistant of H. Brunton in Karas in 1803. H. Burton who translated many religious books into Turkish and Tatar and his follower Charles Fraser adopted the natives writing tradition. Fraser based the Ottoman translation of Ali Bey by learning Karai language, Astrahan and Orenburg Kypcak and he produced the Creation work in other words “The First Book of Moses”.
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The Bavarian provincial exposition, which was organised in 2014 at Regensburg, undertook to present at three urban venues the career of Louis, Duke of Bavaria, more commonly known as Louis the Bavarian, who was elected as King of the Romans 700 years ago. His story constituted one peculiar chapter in the long competition between the Habsburg, Luxembourg and Wittelsbach dynasties, which dominated the entire 14th century. Alongside treating the various political struggles, such as the excommunication of 1327, which is discussed with much detail, the organisers also took pains to off er the visitors a picture of everyday life and in particular of contemporary Regensburg, and project a view of the later reception of various 14th-century events.
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The fine of peace (iudicium pacis) was paid by the parties in a lawsuit to their ordinary judge in case they petitioned for and received permission, before judgement was pronounced, to make an agreement by arbitration or otherwise. The term itself emerged in the sources in the course of the fourteenth century, but the fine had certainly had to be paid to the judge already in the late thirteenth century if the case ended with an agreement instead of a judgement. From 1435 the judges were disallowed to exact it in acts of might (actus potentiarii), and the ban was extended from the end of the fifteenth century to all suits that ended with agreement prior to judgement. The fine of peace was generally shared by the parties: they either paid equally, or the defendant took on itself the payment of the bigger part. While few sources give precise sums, on the basis of the surviving evidence the amount of the fine was in the range between 3 and 5 florins. Higher sums only occur before the law of 1351.
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The presented data were collected on the occasion of the outer refurbishment of the church of Sâncrăieni. We did not have the opportunity to do archaeological research elsewhere, nevertheless we could form a comprehensive history of the main building periods. Sâncrăieni is situated int he eastern part of Transylvania, in the former Szekler seat Csík. The name refers to Saint Stephen I, the first king of Hungary as „Saint King" (Szentkirály), this village name and its church had therefore been created before 1192, the canonization of the second saint king of Hungary, László I. The Hungarian-speaking population of the Szeklers was settled in the region int he late 12th and early 13th centuries. Sâncrăieni and its church were probably founded by the new settlers, but they can as well be of an earlier origin. The walls of the nave preserve the remains of two medieval phases. The western gate and one fragment of a window can be identified as parts of a Romanic period Later the nave was elongated towards the east, on this part of the southern wall an early gothic window was discovered. None of the medieval periods of the chancel is known, as the present chancel was built to the nave in 1759. Like the most village churches of the region, the medieval church had no spire, nevertheless a bell from 1562 testifies to the existence of a wooden tower. Based on dendrochronological dating of the timbers, the present tower in the west was built in the early 18th century. The roof forms of the two medieval phases of the nave were reconstructed on the basis of the western gable remains.The presented data were collected on the occasion of the outer refurbishment of the church of Sâncrăieni. We did not have the opportunity to do archaeological research elsewhere, nevertheless we could form a comprehensive history of the main building periods. Sâncrăieni is situated in the Eastern part of Transylvania, in the former Szekler seat Csík. The name refers to Saint Stephen I, the first king of Hungary as „Saint King" (Szentkirály), this village name and its church had therefore been created before 1192, the canonization of the second saint king of Hungary, László I. The Hungarian-speaking population of the Szeklers was settled in the region in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Sâncrăieni and its church were probably founded by the new settlers, but they can as well be of an earlier origin. The walls of the nave preserve the remains of two medieval phases. The western gate and one fragment of a window can be identified as parts of a Romanic period Later the nave was elongated towards the east, on this part of the southern wall an early gothic window was discovered. None of the medieval periods of the chancel is known, as the present chancel was built to the nave in 1759. Like the most village churches of the region, the medieval church had no spire, nevertheless a bell from 1562 testifies to the existence of a wooden tower. Based on dendrochronological dating of the timbers, the present tower in the west was built in the early 18th century. The roof forms of the two medieval phases of the nave were reconstructed on the basis of the western gable remains.
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Die mittelalterliche, heute evangelisch-lutherische Kirche in Durles (Dârlos/Darlac, RO) befindet sich im Norden des Landkreises Hermannstadt (Sibiu/Szeben, RO). Durles liegt 10 Kilometer westlich von Elisabethstadt (Dumbrăveni/Erzsébetváros, RO) und 6 Kilometer östlich von Mediasch (Media/Medgyes, RO). In einer Urkunde der päpstlichen Kurie aus dem Jahr 1332 erscheint der Ort unter dem Namen Dorlako. Die ältesten Dokumente, die Bezug auf die Wandgemälde der Kirche nehmen, verdanken sich dem französischen Schriftsteller Auguste De Gérando und stammen aus dem Jahr 1845. Die detaillierte Beschreibung umfasst Informationen über die Wandgemälde im Langhaus, im Chorraum und auf den Außenseiten des Kirchenbaus. Auf der Laibung trägt der Triumphbogen eine Aufschrift, die das Datum 1701 und den Vermerk enthält, dass im Jahr 1845 umfangreiche Renovierungsarbeiten am Kirchenbau vorgenommen worden sind. Während dieser Renovierungsarbeiten wurden die Wandgemälde in Chor und Langhaus mit Kalkfarbe überdeckt. Die Aufschrift gehört der ersten Kalkschicht an, die den Triumphbogen und die Wandgemälde der Chorwände bedeckt. Die letzten größeren Renovierungsarbeiten wurden im Jahr 1972 durchgeführt. Vermutlich sind mit dieser Gelegenheit auch die Wandgemälde auf den Wänden des Langhauses entfernt worden. Heute ist es nicht mehr möglich, Reste dieser Wandbemalung zu finden. Im Jahr 1975 wurden zufällig wenige Fragmente der Wandgemälde des Chorraums entdeckt. In den Jahren 2009–2011 führte der Restaurierungsfachbetrieb Imago Picta GmbH Rechercheund Konservierungsarbeiten in mehreren Etappen durch. Dabei trat auf der Nordwand des Chorraums eine Darstellung des Jüngsten Gerichts zutage; auf der gegenüberliegenden Südwand wurden Szenen aus dem Leben der Heiligen Katharina von Alexandrien und solche, auf denen Helena und Konstantin zu sehen sind, entdeckt. Die Fachliteratur hält keinen Aufschluss über den Fertigungsprozess von Wandgemälden in den mittelalterlichen Kirchen Siebenbürgens bereit. Der Großteil der verfügbaren Beschreibungen bezieht sich lediglich auf Maltechniken und Stilfragen. Die von mir durchgeführten Untersuchungen bieten neue Erkenntnisse über den aktuellen Zustand der Wandbilder, die Fertigungstechniken und die Abfolge der Malschichten, die verwendeten Materialien und Werkzeuge.
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The terms of decima et nona pars/partes appear in charters in the fourteenth century, in cases where the parties agreed in one of them paying the other a given sum. It occurs in cases of pledging, purchase, redemption of daughters’ quarter, termination of lawsuits by agreement alike. The sum, which could be termed „fee” in the modern sense of the word, was paid – if not otherwise stipulated – by the receiving party to the judge or to the issuer of the charter who fixed the agreement.
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