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Stav vojvodinskej slovenčiny ako enklávneho jazyka

Author(s): Juraj Glovňa / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 03+04/2018

The paper aims to capture the current state of Vojvodina Slovak as an enclave language in Serbia in regards to the latest dynamic processes at the level of its phonetic, grammatical, lexical and pragmalinguistic functions. The study examines the development tendencies of the Vojvodina Slovak language against the background of the strong pressure of Serbian. It appears that the written form of Vojvodina Slovak used in public communication, especially in print, electronic media and publishing, is strongly influenced by Standard Slovak codified in Slovakia. At the same time, it retains its own „Vojvodina attributes“ resulting from the underlying dialect and bilingual context.

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Acquiring word order in Slovak as a foreign language: Comparison of Slavic and Non-Slavic learners utilizing corpus data

Author(s): Martina Ivanová,Miroslava Kyseľová,Anna Gálisová / Language(s): English Issue: 2/2021

The paper deals with the acquisition of Slovak word order in written texts of students of Slovak as a foreign language. Its attention is focused on identifying the correct and incorrect placement of enclitic components, and their erroneous usage is analysed with respect to different investigated variables (types of enclitic components, types of syntactic construction, distance from lexical/syntactic anchor, and realization in pre- or post-verbal position). The paper also pays attention to the error rate regarding individual proficiency levels of students, and error distribution in two language groups, Slavic and Non-Slavic learners, is compared.

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Reciprocita v slovenčine a optimalizácia jej lexikografického spracovania

Author(s): Martina Ivanová / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 2/2020

The study deals with the question when does the reflexive marker sa, si accompanying a verb present the clitic form of the pronoun and when it can be described as the reflexive morpheme used to derive verb with reciprocal semantics. Considering the results of a semantic test (reciprocity as the typical implication of the verb semantics) and syntactic test (the possibility to use the verb in the subject discontinuous construction), we came to the conclusion which verbs can be considered as derived reciprocals and thus should be processed in the dictionary and in which cases the reflexive marker is used to coin the reciprocal construction of non-reflexive verb with the reciprocity as possible, yet not typical implication.

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Syntaktické výskumy v časopise Slovenská reč

Author(s): Martina Ivanová / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 3/2022

The study describes the works that have been published in Slovenská reč since the 1930s until now. It closely characterizes the tendencies of the development in Slovak syntax and heterogenous syntactic issues presented in the works throughout all decades during the ninety years of the existence of the journal. The study is divided into several thematic sections. The first part deals with linguistic papers investigating various topics connected with sentence elements and syntagmas. Due to the long-term tradition of valency research in the Slovak context, special attention is paid to valency research in Slovak linguistic works. The linguistic phenomena of a two-fold nature – both syntactic and morphological, lexical and orthographic – are closely described in a separate section. The following part focuses on works that analyze compound and complex sentences and questions related to the functioning of non-finite clauses. Finally, the papers dealing with textual syntax phenomena including marked syntactic constructions close the study. The summary brings a recapitulation of the findings and highlights the most prominent figures and the most crucial issues of the syntactic research. At the same time, it points to the challenges that have to be taken on by the linguistic community in the future.

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Neukazovacie druhy zámen ako formálne vetné členy

Author(s): Ján Kačala / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 1/2023

The author proceeds from the general meaning of pronouns as a word class and shows how the general (categorical) meaning of individual types of pronouns translates into particular subtypes of pronouns. The author explains different kinds of pronominal meaning. He pays special attention to the occurrence of relative meaning in pronouns with basic indefinite and demonstrative meaning. The findings are based on living linguistic evidence from Slovak literary praxis.

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Vetná pozícia a vetný člen

Author(s): Ján Kačala / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 4/2023

The author of this paper examines fundamental syntactic concepts and terms, including syntactic position and sentence constituent, used within the framework of the sentence constituent approach to sentence structure. The paper provides a basic characterization of selected concepts and terms and highlights substantial differences between them. Three closely related aspects of sentence constituents are illustrated through the example of the subject in a two-part sentence in Slovak. The paper emphasizes the inadequate recognition of the distinct conceptual validity of these concepts and terms in current scholarly literature and advocates for their systematic differentiation.

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Verbification of Feminine Forms of Adjectives można 'possible', niemożna 'impossible' and niepodobna 'impossible' – Corpus-based Approach

Author(s): Renata Bronikowska / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

The article is devoted to the process taking place in the Middle Polish period, which led to the transformation of nominative, singular, feminine forms of three adjectives (można 'possible', niemożna 'impossible' and niepodobna 'impossible') into verbal lexemes (the so-called predicatives). In this respect, the predicative uses of these forms in the texts collected in the Electronic Corpus of 17th- and 18th-century Polish Texts (up to 1772) were investigated. The progressive verbification of adjectival forms was considered to be indicated by three changes in the constructions where these forms played the role of a predicate: supersession of connections with feminine verb forms by connections with neuter forms, limiting the connections with verbs to the auxiliary verb być 'to be', and disappearance of connections with the personal form of the verb być in the present tense. The research results show that both forms acquired the two most important features characteristic for predicatives during the 17th century. The third of the analysed properties characterizes the form można/niemożna from the second half of the 19th century, and the process of its acquisition by the form niepodobna has not ended yet.

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Spanish Synonyms as Part of a Multilingual Event-Type Ontology

Author(s): Cristina Fernández-Alcaina,Eva Fučíková,Jan Hajič,Zdeňka Urešová / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

This paper presents an ongoing work on the multilingual event-type ontology SynSemClass, where multilingual verbal synonymy is formalized in terms of syntactic and semantic properties. In the ontology, verbs are grouped into synonym classes, both monolingually and cross-lingually. Specifically, verbs are considered to belong to the same class if they both express the same meaning in a specific context, and their valency frame can be mapped to the set of roles defined for a particular class. SynSemClass is built following a bottom-up approach where translational equivalents are automatically extracted from parallel corpora and annotated by human annotators. The task of the annotators consists in mapping the valency frame of a particular verb with the set of roles defined for the class where the verb is included as a potential class member, establishing links to external resources, and selecting relevant examples. The Spanish part of the ontology currently contains 257 classes enriched with Spanish synonyms. The resulting resource provides fine-grained syntactic and semantic information on multilingual verbal synonyms and links to other existing monolingual and multilingual resources.

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Errors in the Congruent Attribute among Students Learning Slovak as a Foreign Language (Learner Corpus-based)

Author(s): Katarína Gajdošová,Michaela Mošaťová,Petra Švancarová / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

This paper analyses error rates in the congruent attribute in texts written by students learning Slovak as a foreign language. The material, which was qualitatively analysed, comes from the pilot version of the learner corpus errkorp-pilot. The paper defines the most common types of errors in the congruent attribute and interprets the causes of their origin. The most common errors include the wrong congruence with the grammatical gender and with the case of the defining noun. Errors are usually caused by the following factors: transfer from the L1 language, excessive generalization of the rule in the target language, or insufficient knowledge of the grammatical rule.

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Through Derivational Relations to Valency of Non-verbal Predicates in the NomVallex Lexicon

Author(s): Veronika Kolářová,Václava Kettnerová,Jiří Mírovský / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

NomVallex is a manually annotated valency lexicon of Czech nouns and adjectives that enables a comparison of valency properties of derivationally related lexical units. We present new developments in how the lexicon facilitates research into changes in valency across part-of-speech categories and derivational types. In particular, it provides links from derived lexical units to their base lexical units and also allows to search and display a base lexical unit together with all lexical units directly derived from it. Using an automatic procedure, any difference in valency between two derivationally related lexical units is specified. As a case study, focusing on nouns and adjectives directly or indirectly motivated by verbs, the facilities provided by the lexicon are used to show differences in what ways the particular deverbal derivatives representing various derivational types express the valency complementation standing in the base verbal construction in the subject position.

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Morphosyntactic Annotation in Universal Dependencies for Old Czech

Author(s): Daniel Zeman,Pavel Kosek,Martin Březina,Jiří Pergler / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

We describe the first steps in preparation of a treebank of 14th-century Czech in the framework of Universal Dependencies. The Dresden and Olomouc versions of the Gospel of Matthew have been selected for this pilot study, which also involves modification of the annotation guidelines for phenomena that occur in Old Czech but not in Modern Czech. We describe some of these modifications in the paper. In addition, we provide some interesting observations about applicability of a Modern Czech parser to the Old Czech data.

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The InterCorp Parallel Corpus with a Uniform Annotation for All Languages

Author(s): Alexandr Rosen / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2023

Recently, the language-specific morphosyntactic annotation of InterCorp, a large multilingual parallel corpus, has been replaced by the language-uniform morphosyntactic and syntactic annotation following the guidelines of the Universal Dependencies project. Because the corpus is used predominantly by human users via a token-based concordancer, the CONLL-U format produced by the UDPipe parser has been extended by attributes such as lemma of the token’s syntactic head or morphosyntactic categories of the content verb’s auxiliary. We conclude that despite some theoretical and practical issues, the new annotation is a promising solution to the issue of mutually incompatible tagsets within a single corpus.

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Pevnosť a voľnosť v slovoslede vedľajších vetných členov

Author(s): Ján Kačala / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 5/2023

The topic of this article revolves around the word order of subordinate clauses, particularly from the perspective of whether their position in relation to the superordinate clause element in the phrase is fixed. In cases where the superordinate clause element is moved, it is necessary to determine whether the subordinate clause element must also be moved alongside it, or whether it can remain in a free position, allowing for the word order to be rearranged freely within the sentence, with both syntagmatic components behaving independently. Based on this, subordinate clause elements can be categorized into two groups: those that maintain a fixed position in the word order arrangement of the phrase, which applies to postpositive non-agreeing and agreeing attributes, and those that allow for a free arrangement in the word order, typically found in phrases where the superordinate verb is followed by the object of action or by an adverbial determination. This distinction in word order also facilitates the differentiation between a non-agreeing postpositive attribute and an adverbial determination.

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Syntaktické osobitosti oravských nárečí

Author(s): Adriana Ferenčíková / Language(s): Slovak Issue: 2/2024

The paper is based on the brief data on the syntax of the Orava dialects in Habovštiak’s monograph Oravské nárečia [Orava Dialects] (1965) and tries to detect some peculiar syntactic forms, the functioning of synonymic constructions with regard to their territorial distribution, frequency, stylistic characteristics and place on the temporal axis. The material base of the paper consists of samples of dialect texts published in Habovštiak’s monograph and his extensive anthology of dialect narratives Oravci o svojej minulosti [The Orava Inhabitants about Their Past] (1983). The results of the research indicate that, in comparison with neighbouring dialects, Orava dialects use syntactic constructions with the primary prepositions do, na, za to a larger extent, and that they also express the simile by means of the conjunctions sťa and že. The productive item of their syntactic system is the genitive of negation, as well as several kinds of infinitive constructions. A characteristic feature of all Orava dialects is the use of the negative form of the 2nd pers. sg. of the verb mať [to have] in the function of denying existence – as a synonym of the form ňejest it is the main element for expressing this meaning in the dialects of Upper Orava.

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Ning-ist ja-ni ja edasi

Author(s): Külli Habicht,Külli Prillop / Language(s): Estonian Issue: 1-2/2025

This article examines the occurrence and functional distribution of the linguistic units ja and ning (‘and’) in early written Estonian texts. In modern Estonian, ja and ning are high-frequency synonymous coordinating conjunctions, whose functions have been described in previous linguistic studies and subjected to prescriptive language regulation. The corpus-based study reveals that while the conjunction ning appears in the oldest preserved texts, evidence of the reinterpretation of the affirmative response particle ja(a) as a conjunction can already be found in early 17th-century texts. Based on the preserved sources of written Estonian, it is evident that the contact-induced particle ja occurs in (inter)subjective contexts, not only in an affirmative function but also in a connective one (jaa > ja). This represents a rare developmental pathway for conjunctions: a contact-induced particle (ja) evolving into a conjunction. This process demonstrates a transition from pragmatics to grammar. Previous studies suggest that the more common developmental path involves the opposite direction: a conjunction evolving into a particle. However, such an exceptional pathway becomes possible when the contact-induced linguistic unit possesses a suitable phonological structure and meaning. Although the particle functions of ja – affirmative, emphatic, and concordant – also exist in German, the conjunction function develops only in Estonian. The entrenchment of the conjunction ja was further supported by deliberate decisions made during the ecclesiastical reforms of written language in the late 17th century, as well as by the authority of the 1739 Estonian Bible. The emphatic function of the particle ja – conveying meanings ‘indeed, surely’ and derived from German – also appears in 17th-century texts, albeit rarely. This represents a secondary branch of functional development influenced by language contact. However, the development of the conjunction ja is primarily linked to the reinterpretation of the affirmative particle jaa, as evidenced by numerous bridging constructions in texts from the early 17th century onward. The emphatic and affirmative functions connect ja as both an affirmative response particle (jaa) and as an emphatic particle (‘ju’). The decline of emphatic usage and the increased positioning of ja in sentence-internal connective roles led to its preference as a neutral coordinative conjunction from the 18th century onward. A distinction between Northern and Southern Estonian usage lies in the fact that Southern Estonian texts overwhelmingly favour the conjunction ning until the late 18th century. The affirmative response particle jaa emerges in Southern Estonian texts only in the second half of the 18th century. The emphatic use of ja in the sense of ‘indeed, surely’ is also rare in written Southern Estonian. Consequently, the development of ja into a conjunction occurs earlier and more rapidly in Northern Estonian texts compared to Southern Estonian ones.

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Latvian reflexive and non-reflexive verbs and action nouns with paš- ‘self-’

Author(s): Daiki Horiguchi / Language(s): English Issue: 15/2024

The author continues to address issues of Latvian reflexive and non-reflexive verbs compounded with paš- ‘self-’ and their action nouns. A mass media database search yielded 210 reflexive verbs and 39 non-reflexive verbs compounded with paš-, as well as 290 reflexive and 160 nonreflexive action nouns compounded with paš-. The functionality of paš-compounded reflexive verbs and nouns is facilitated through the interaction of the reflexive and emphatic semantics delivered by both the reflexive marker and paš-. For the non-reflexive verbs and action nouns, it may convey the causative semantics “subject someone/something to the autonomous action named by the verbal base” or the exclusive semantics “by oneself”. Although verbal derivation with paš- is a peripheral phenomenon in Latvian, reflexive verbs and nouns compounded with paš- provide insights into the intersection of verbal and nominal derivations. Paš- does not function fully in verbal derivation because of the sparse distribution of compound verbs. Instead, it demonstrates activity in the nominal domain as an action noun. For 53.4% of the reflexive action nouns and 74.3% of the non-reflexive action nouns, corresponding reflexive and non-reflexive verbs are not attested in the mass media database, which suggests the backformation of some paš-verbs due to the paradigmatic nature of the derivation verb – action noun. Paš- demonstrates its derivational potential from the nominal domain to the verbal domain, and action nouns with -šan- can be regarded as derived via this route.

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How lemmatisation and derivational annotation affect productivity measures: The case of deverbal agent nouns in the Joint Corpus of Lithuanian

Author(s): Jurgis Pakerys,Virginijus Dadurkevičius,Agnė Navickaitė-Klišauskienė / Language(s): English Issue: 15/2024

We discuss the automatic and manual stages of the lemmatisation and annotation of the Joint Corpus of Lithuanian (1.3 billion words) used to measure derivational productivity. As a case study, we present data of three productive deverbal agent noun suffixes in Lithuanian, -toj-, -ėj-, -ik-, and measure their realized, expanding, and potential productivity. We show that an additional semi-automatic lemmatisation and a manual derivational annotation significantly increase type and hapax counts. We also note that lemmatisation is affected by an artificially increased number of lemmas due to homographic forms unresolved by the lemmatiser. After the manual disambiguation of hapaxes, the numbers of feminine formations in -toj-(a) and -ėj-(a) were the most significantly reduced.

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Development of Lithuanian dialects in the active Baltic-Slavic contact zone: Signs of the decay of morphological structure

Author(s): Nijolė Tuomienė / Language(s): English Issue: 15/2024

This article presents sociolinguistic research of the Southern Aukštaitian subdialect of Lithuanian spoken on both sides of the border between Southeastern Lithuania and Northwestern Belarus. It should be noted that the Lithuanian dialect no longer forms a homogeneous area, as it is losing out to Belarusian, which is called po prostu in the studied areas. When the Lithuanian dialect lost its function, many Lithuanian speakers switched to the Belarusian dialect alone. The change of languages in the same areas over two or three generations has led to a very close relationship between the languages. The object of the investigation is two linguistic borderland areas: the first one includes 17 points of the southeastern borderland of Lithuania from Atlas of the Lithuanian Language (LKA) and the second one is comprised of four points, which constitute the continuation of Southern Aukštaitian beyond the borders of Lithuania. The material covers almost seven decades, from the second half of the 20th century to the second decade of the 21st century. The aim of the study is to analyse the most important changes in the morphological system of the Southern Aukštaitian dialect used in the two areas. The article analyses the changes of contact origin, which have occurred in the Lithuanian language systems of nouns and verbs at the morphological level. Due to constant interaction with Slavic languages, the Lithuanian dialect has undergone complex degenerative changes in its grammatical structure. The language processes are analysed using the apparent-time method (Labov 1963): the current language of three generations of informants is studied and compared.

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Bashkërenditja e sintagmave parafjalore në gjuhën shqipe

Author(s): Adelajda Baftiu,Qëndresa Jakupi / Language(s): Albanian Issue: 26/2024

The object of this study is the coordination of prepositional phrases in the Albanian language. The research aims to analyze how coordinated phrases are presented in this language. Coordination refers to the relationship between two or more elements with equal syntactic status. For instance, in the clause "Jetonte afër shtëpisë simedhe në disa lagje të tjera" (Eng. He lived near my house and in some otherneighborhoods), the two prepositional phrases afër shtëpisë sime and në disa lagje të tjera maintain equal mutual relations. Even if their positions are interchanged or one is removed, the structure of the phrase remains intact. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and a complement (Greenbaum and Nelson, 2002). The typical complement of a prepositional phrase is the noun phrase, with the preposition preceding the complement of PP. This paper is based on the hypothesis that the structure of prepositional phrases can vary in coordination, potentially involving the presence of two noun phrases within the PP. This will be analyzed through immediate constituent analysis.

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Features of BE-perfect grammaticalization in the person-based auxiliation system of Barese

Author(s): Danguolė Kotryna Kapkan / Language(s): English Issue: 77/2024

This paper seeks to identify patterns of the BE auxiliary usage in the Barese perfect which features a person-based auxiliary usage pattern but does not strictly adhere to it. The analysis is based on the quantitative data from written texts in Barese. The paper presents an overview of the semantic functions of the Barese perfect along with the usage frequency of the BE auxiliary in the 3rd person, where it is not foreseen by the person-based auxiliary pattern in the perfect. The analysis shows that the 3rd person BE auxiliary in the data most frequently appears with statives and subject-oriented resultatives. These two semantic functions of the perfect coincide with the least grammaticalized values of an exclusively BE perfect in Lithuanian. This shows that the development of the BE + participle construction in Barese follows the steps that may be peculiar to the grammaticalization of BE perfects. As all uses of the Barese perfect in the data used for this study with the BE auxiliary in the 3rd person draw the system closer to the Standard Italian split-auxiliary model, these developments can be regarded not merely as the influence of Standard Italian upon the local dialect, but also as contact-induced grammaticalization.

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