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The interactive correspondence of art, science, and preservation supports the composition of a four-volume anonymous herbarium originally belonging first to the Venetian library of Ambassador Hurtado de Mendoza, and later endowed to the Royal Library of the Monastery-Palace of El Escorial. This planted knowledge consist¬ed of artistic and scientific practices (composition, writing, calligraphy, naming, dry¬ing, pressing, cataloguing, relating to health properties, and so on) to preserve not only the plants dried and glued to recycled paper, but the association of those plants, with names, stories, and contexts in ways that attest to the development of natural history and philosophy in sixteenth-century Italy and Spain. This article describes and analyzes the composition of the Hurtado herbarium, its provenance, and its place in the context of early modern European naturalism and botany. Finally, it considers problems of reading this collection, and possible solutions to better understand the herbarium in El Escorial as another piece of this network of dissemination of ethnobotanical knowledge in early modern Europe.
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The article concentrate on the issues concerned local matters, like self-governments for example regular elections of district officials, presence of the Russian troops anddestruction made by them, matters of towns, particularly position and pro its of Kaunas. The most numerous are issues concentrating on personal matters. Instructions was often used by local leaders to strengthen their position in emulation of local factions and local issues often were caused by particular interests.
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Since the beginning of the Great Northern War (1700–1721), the Saxon-PolishRussian political and military alliance didn’t go as Augustus II had planned. He was losing battles against Charles XII and, after Peter I was defeated in the battle of Narva in 1700, he took on the burden of leading the warfare. The Tsar feared that the Saxon-Polish king might have made separatist peace with the king of Sweden and hoped for the Polish– Lithuanian Commonwealths involvement in the conflict, therefore he attempted to aid Augustus II’s Saxon army by organizing a Russian auxiliary corps which, in time, turned out to be more of a political strategy than a military one. The present article reviews this issue through an analysis of Vladimir Sergeevich Velikanov’s latest work. The scholar used Russian archives to characterise the corps and its operations and thus addressed an area that has hardly been discussed by either Russian or Polish historiography, forming a new baseline for further research by historians from both countries.
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The article is an analysis of the attitude and life path of two women from the 18th century who were forced to leave their own homeland and started looking for a new place in life. The first is Countess Charlotte Louise von Heyden (after her marriage Schwerin), the second is Regina Salomea Pilsztynowa. Both left a rich testimony of their life adventures in the form of diaries. Pilsztynowa wrote her work in Polish in 1760. The Countess von Schwerin in French, probably in the years 1723–1724. Both found themselves in a foreign world and both had to make an attempt to tame this foreign world, to adapt to new conditions. Both described in their diaries how they prepared for their new role in the foreign world. The authors of the article used the categories “self-identification” and “external identification” introduced by sociologist and historian Roger Brubaker and Frederick Cooper in their work Beyond identity. This allowed, on the one hand, to observe changes in the attitude of Schwerin and Salomea Pilsztynowa, and, on the other hand, to point out the tensions between old habits and customs and the need for new choices. What the two heroines have in common is certainly the strength of their personalities, which allowed them, against family, social and cultural pressures, to break habits and conventions and consistently follow their own plan for life.
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The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 created the context for Romania to officially declare its independence from the Ottoman Empire and have it recognized by the great occidental powers. The efforts of the Romanian army and of the entire population in general were rewarded this way with the fulfilment of a long awaited ideal. Neverthe-less, this accomplishment came along with many sacrifices, difficult situations that had to be overcome as well as numerous material and financial losses. The war repara-tions Romania requested from the Russian military authorities compensated for only part of the damages and the process proved to be more time consuming than expected. The official piece of correspondence that we refer to in this article, issued by Prince Obolensky, the Russian commissioner in charge of this matter, represents another small but by no means insignificant piece that is added to the greater puzzle on Romania’s independence and its relations with the Russian Empire. It completes the existent data on the subject and it highlights the position of both parties.
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The study attempts to define the genre features of romance based on the currently available research findings, but also taking into account a broader perspective of different meanings which the term assumes both in Polish and in the main European languages. Wierzbicka refers to English studies, as well as to Polish studies because these two languages have developed a similar distinction between romance and novel. The basic assumption adopted in this paper concerns the equivocal use of this term in literary studies, which obscures the picture of the history of literature. Therefore, the history of the term is discussed, which has made it possible to distinguish six different meanings of the term. The first, oldest meaning is specific to the era in which it appeared (like many mediaeval terms), and concerns works written in Romanesque vernacular languages as opposed to mediaeval Latin. It is not a name of a genre. The second meaning has been distinguished in two variants. Generally, it refers to a literary genre that is characterised by an adventurous love story and a protagonist who on principle is a lover. Variants of romance include different textual forms: in the 16th century, it was a poem of a specific narrative structure different from the epic, and in the 17th century it was (mostly) prose. The third meaning begins to dominate in the 18th century, and is an extension of the second meaning of the word “romance” in its second variant, namely, it covers all fictional prose of varied literary value. The fourth meaning was distinguished by English and Polish literary scholars of the second half of the 20th century, who undertook the 18th-century practice of juxtaposing “romance” and “novel”. They recognised “romance” as a heterogeneous epic form characterised by the extraordinary and fairy- tale character of narrative fiction. The fifth meaning of the word “romance” refers to a lyrical genre. The sixth, contemporary meaning refers to popular literature, and specifically to a narrative genre that tells a love story. Each of these six meanings illuminates a different fragment of the literary reality. In this context, the question of which of them would be the most functional in literary research becomes all the more important. Wierzbicka argues that the second meaning, similar to the sixth meaning, will allow this term to be used with reference to all literature, without the risk of ambiguity. This is because the basic generic determinant of the second meaning coincides with the contemporary reading consciousness and today’s use of the word, and thus it has a practical dimension. The following were considered genre features of romance: love story, which can optionally abound in adventures; a specific construction of the hero or heroine as one in love; the narrative structure consisting of many actions concentrated around parallel characters; prosaic or verse form; entertainment function (formerly also didactic). Historical variants of the genre are also presented, including the mediaeval chivalric romance, comic-ironic romance, 17th-century romance, sentimental romance, realistic romance. The proposed definition also enables a new look at the historicoliterary reality, especially of the mediaeval and early-modern period, whose narrative works escape the existing nomenclature.
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One of the most popular panegyrical forms in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the so-called “stemmata”. Similar to emblems, these visual works consisted of an illustrated coat of arms and an epigram, often attached to the front matter of printed texts during the old-Polish period. This paper discusses select cases in which, influenced by emblems, lemma are incorporated into the stemma’s structure. The text explains how the lemma is introduced to the stemma and how it affects the latter’s meaning. Particular attention has been paid to cases in which mottos are treated as the title of a combination of a coat of arms and a poem. The text also analyses “academic stemmata”, a sub-genre of a heraldic poem that consists of several features characteristic of emblems. The presence of lemma in the structure of stemmata is recognized as the consequence of a trend to liven up this visual form. Making the emblem more attractive was a way to draw the attention of readers, increasing the producer’s chance of communicating a panegyrical message. Not only the authors of stemma, but also their powerful patrons came to require this effect. The presence of lemma in the structure of heraldic poems also relates to the role of mottos in the Jesuit educational system. Mottos and verba aurea were treated by teachers from the Society of Jesus as a very useful medium for presenting moral and parenetic subjects and it was fairly easy for authors of stemmata to use them for panegyric purposes. The lemma’s role within the stemma’s structure was twofold; it created a special connection between the stemma and the main text and simultaneously linked the fictional word of literature with the real one. The popularity of “classic stemmata” in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth led to the creation and popularisation of other hybrid forms composed of a coat of arms and other textual elements.
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The three studies presented here deal with some selected questions connected with seals displaying the coat-of-arms of Poznań. They include seals of Dominican Nuns of Poznań, early modern municipal seals and a seal from the period of the January Uprising.
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The article presents an analysis of the seals of the Lubiąż (Leubus) abbots from the period between the end of the Middle Ages to 1810. Attention was paid to the visual aspects of individual abbot seals and the functions performed by the seals in the abbots’ activity in both within the local communities and outside. The article is divided into an analytical part and an inventory of abbot seals, in which all known seal matrices and seals from the examined period are summarised.
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Aleksander Krasiński settled down in the Duchy of Moscow where he converted into Orthodox denomination. Bazyli, Aleksander’s son, was also an Orthodox, just like his father. He returned to Poland and on 22 June 1667 he requested for the Polish Parliament to grant him the status of an exile. Bazyli’s son, Tomasz Krasiński, Stolnik – Pantler of Ciechanów, was most probably an Orthodox, just as his father and grandfather were. Mikołaj Krasiński, the son of Tomasz decided to convert to Calvinism. We know about the Calvinist denomination of Mikołaj Krasiński from baptism records maintained in the Evangelical Reformed parishes in Słuck and in Ostaszyn. These baptism registers were then transferred to the archives of the Synod of the Evangelical Reformed Church in Wilno (Vilnius). We have an almost absolute certainty that Mikołaj initiated the Calvinist branch of the Krasińskis of Ślepowron coat of arms. Descendants of the Krasińskis’ Calvinist branch were Jan Krasiński, born around 1728, and Bogusław Krasiński, son of Mikołaj, born around 1729. Another descendant of the Krasińskis’ Calvinist branch was Tomasz, son of the Starost of Homel. One of the most outstanding representatives of the Calvinist branch of the Krasiński family is the Count of Walerian Skorobohaty Krasiński (1795–1855).
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In the mid-sixteenth century, Evangelicals of the Reformed Church emerged in the Duchy of Prussia and the Royal Prussia. Until 1772, Calvinists in both parts of Prussia did not have superior church administrative structures similar those of Lutherans. It was not until the end of the 18th century that the Upper Prussian Inspectorate and the West Prussian Inspectorate were established. In 1806 the Reformed Superintendent Office of Elbing was created from both Inspectorates. The article presents the history of the Calvinist congregations at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries in Preussisch Holland, Riesenburg, Soldau, Mohrungen, Samrodt, Quittainen, Elbing, Marienwerder, Bromberg, Krockow and Nassenhuben.
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In the paper, we considered the cultural ideal as the basic feature that distinguishes the theories of education according to Plato’s line from the theories of education according to Isocrates’ line. By example from the history of culture, we have shown the significance of cultural ideals in the theories of education of Antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Age. In paper, authors tried to solve two objectives: firstly, to consider the consistency of the cultural ideal of an “intelligent person” with modern knowledge of the experience of being of Dasein-the-One; secondly, to propose a new cultural ideal, as a lighting, as a way to build an ideal Earth’s Republic. The authors stand on the point of view, that at the beginning of the 21st century, the Earth’s civilization for the first time manifested as a planetary force and this tendency should be correspondingly reflected at the philosophy of contemporary education. The authors considered the criticism of the Modern Age ideal of an “intelligent person” and proposed a new cultural ideal, which we called the metaphor “Those Who Transform the Universe.” Mentioned ideal is lighted the chasm that is between the authenticity and inauthenticity existence, between the Selbst and the das Man.
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Administrative and urban centers on the Adriatic coast were connected with the continental interior since antiquity. The connection of the coastal area of Salona, and later of Split with the hinterland, continued in the Middle Ages. Due to limited production capacities, eastern Adriatic cities were focused on the import of raw materials, ie goods, livestock and livestock products from the mainland. After the disturbance because of Ottoman expansionism and conquests, trade and traffic were strengthened at the end of the 16th century by establishing the port of Split as the main transit port between the Venetian Republic and the Ottoman Empire. Aside climatic circumstances, communication via Livno and Kupreška visoravan was occasionally interrupted by epidemics and wars. Along that way,the goods were transported not only from the interior of Bosnia, but also from further parts within the Ottoman Empire. This vertical to the coast and the important backbone of traffic between Split as a Dalmatian center and the area of present-day south-east and central Bosnia and Herzegovina was exposed to political influences, state borders and was conditioned by foreign influences, experiencing the ups and downs of its significance.
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The phenomenon of power accompanies the whole history of mankind. In any protosocial community, at the level of biological packs, power is expressed in the distribution of dominance-subordination relations between biological individuals. Such a distribution in biology is due to the need for the pack to survive, to fit into the changing ecosystem conditions. In the course of the study, the characteristics of ideological discourse in industrial social space, the distinguishing features of a totalitarian ideological discourse, the modern form of ideology – the invisible ideology of postmodernism – have been analysed. It was concluded that the two leading principles of postmodernism – tolerance and hedonism today are faced with a new traditionalism or rather a new archaic mass consciousness. As a result of this clash, most likely, a new form of ideological discourse will appear, more severe than postmodernism and more rationally justified than nationalism or religious fundamentalism
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