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Szybki rozwój ekonomiczny Chin w ostatnich latach sprawił, że wzrósł znacząco popyt tego państwa na surowce energetyczne, napędzające chińską ekspansję gospodarczą w innych regionach świata. Aby zaspokoić rosnący apetyt, Chińska Republika Ludowa zainicjowała strategię „wyjścia na świat”, czyli zakupu przez państwowe kompanie naftowe (national oil companies – NOC) aktywów energetycznych i praw do eksploatacji surowców na całym świecie, w tym w Ameryce Łacińskiej.
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The end of the Cold War put a stop to a half-century long bipolar international order, which was commonly regarded as a period of stability and equilibrium. As the balance of power ended, many policy analysts predicted that the United States would soon be balanced against by the other powers. Yet, as of today, no great power balancing has emerged. In the absence of traditional balancing, scholars developed the notion of soft-balancing, defi ned as a non-military form of opposition, occurring when weaker states decide that the infl uence and actions of a stronger state are unacceptable. This concept started to replace hard-balancing in the discussion of international resistance to the preponderance of American power.
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Terrorism is a phenomenon which arose as a result of the development of aviation in the mid-20th century. The increasingly larger number of attacks on aviation resulted in undertaking actions on the international scale, aimed at counteracting this phenomenon. Three conventions were adopted with this respect: the Tokyo Convention of 1963, the Hague Convention of 1970, and the Montreal Convention of 1971, which, along with the Montreal Protocol of 1988, form the Tokyo-Hague-Montreal system. The fi rst of the conventions specifi es the rules of conduct of the state’s bodies should one of the persons present on board of the aircraft commit a tort. The second convention concerns combating illegal seizure of aircraft, qualifying this action as crime, and compels the states to prosecute the criminals under the national legislation or pursuant to the institution of extradition. The third of the enumerated conventions includes a list of actions deemed as crimes. The Montreal Protocol, in turn, refers to combating illegal acts of violence at international airports. Developing an international mechanism for securing aviation is aimed at minimising acts of terrorism directed at this vulnerable sector. Regardless of how far stricter the regulations will be made and how detailed the check-in inspection will be, vigilance ought to be always maintained.
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The term ‘global governance’, although imprecise, understood in a variety of manners and applied in diverse contexts, has been present in the literature on international relations since the end of the 20th century. It expresses the intuition of numerous researchers who follow the transformations of the changing international reality and believe that as a result thereof the manner of governing international processes (principles, standards, procedures) have been changing considerably. The paper presents the basic notions and perceptions of the contemporary international relations which are specifi c to the global governance perspective. The subject is introduced with the presentation of global governance sources and the accompanying terminological and methodological disputes. The notion of authority is discussed, which occupies a central position in the literature on global governance, thus being a point of departure to the discussion on the new confi guration of powers on the international stage which is being shaped as a result of globalisation processes. New forms of cooperation between informal circles and interest groups acting for solving global problems, which have not been present before, are a result of those processes. Their activity goes beyond the borders of countries, thus becoming a basis for formulating forecasts on the arising “global civil society”. The fi nal part of the paper presents the most signifi cant weaknesses, as well as moot and arguable points in the interpretation of the contemporary international relations presented by global governance.
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Mimo obowiązującego formalnie od wejścia w życie Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych zakazu użycia siły w stosunkach międzynarodowych, liczba konfl iktów zbrojnych i wojen utrzymuje się na stosunkowo wysokim (choć zmieniającym się) poziomie, zamykającym się pomiędzy liczbami 20 i 401. Jak uzmysławiają przytoczone poniżej wyniki badań jakościowo-ilościowych, po 1988 r. można było obserwować rosnącą przewagę konfl iktów rozgrywających się w schemacie innym niż państwo–państwo lub państwo–grupa państw. Zjawiska te nabrały szczególnej wyrazistości w ostatnich dwóch dekadach, naznaczonych głębokimi przewartościowaniami, w jakości i kształcie stosunków międzynarodowych.
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The author concentrates on the major issues related to the contemporary aviation with respect to its extensive international relations. These are above all the major problems of such aviation that are analysed multi-dimensionally in a broader context of the global economy system, globalisation processes and liberalisation of both transport itself and aviation services. Contemporary aviation is a signifi cant factor which co-develops international relations on numerous planes; this arises from the recent research, the results of which were published by leading publishing houses, mainly foreign, and are now presented in this study. New problems related to aviation security, as well as perspectives for the civil aviation development and directions of the international aviation policy, including regional solutions on the European ground, are also indicated in a broader context of economic and legal issues. Significant role is ascribed to legal regulations in the international aviation, which are fairly broadly highlighted, taking into account the major considerations and the outlining development tendencies which remain strongly correlated with the processes which shape the contemporaryn global economy and the crucial interests of the entities which participate therein. The role of the UN and EU systems in forming the aviation policy and aviation law is also emphasised.
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Совокупность определенных исторических, геополитических, экономических, социально-культурных факторов объясняют подверженность и уязвимость пяти государств региона – Казахстана, Киргизии, Таджикистана, Туркменистана, Узбе- кистана перед террористической угрозой. Крупные города Ферганской долины (состоящей из территорий сопредель- ных государств – Киргизии, Таджикистана и Узбекистана) – Наманган, Андижан, Худжанд и Ош – были в свое время духовными центрами мусульманства Цен- тральной Азии: именно в них располагались основные учебные центры религи- озного управления. Долина издавна славилась как крупный независимый от офи- циальных властей теологический центр.
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Sprawozdanie z konferencji naukowej nt. Współpraca i rywalizacja międzynarodowa w regionie Arktyki na początku XXI wieku
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Determinants of the foreign policy of states may be divided into internal and external(international), and within these groups – into objective and subjective ones. Among the objective determinants in the first group the following are signifi cant to Poland: 1) location in the centre of Europe, relatively high abundance in natural resources and predominantly natural borders of the country; 2) relatively high population potential, which currently amounts to over 38 millions, although it is continuously decreasing; 3) rather scarce economic potential (over EUR 350 milliards in 2010); despite the fact that it is increasing in the situation of the global fi nancial crisis, it is jeopardised due to low outlays on research and development, similarly to inconsiderable military potential of the country; 4) democratic political system, but impaired with the dependency of the foreign policy of the state on the ruling party. The subjective internal determinants, in turn, include: 5) not fully adequate perception of the international environment by the state’s society, media and authority circles, as well as social attitudes towards other countries and nations deeply rooted in the history; 6) two confl icting foreign policy concepts: one pro-European, pro-Atlantic and pragmatic towards the East, the other nationalistic, based on the bandwagoning strategy towards the USA, Euro-scepticism and anti-Russian attitudes; 7) diverse quality of the state’s foreign service and diplomacy. The following phenomena in the latter group of international determinants are objective in nature: 8) generally favourable tendencies in the evolution of the international situation in the closest neighbourhood of Poland, such as: the existence of NATO and the European Union (despite its internal problems), the will of rapprochement between Russia and the West, but also a growing role of the so-called emerging powers: China, India or Brazil; 9)generally high international status of Poland; 10) favourable structure and reach of the contractual international relations and the international law in force. External subjective factors, which are a refl ection of internal subjective determinants, also have an impact on the foreign policy of Poland. In general, it may be stated that currently, on the eve of the second decade of the 21st century, no threats to the Polish foreign policy, especially on the part of the international environment, are observable. However, the unstable and polarised internal political scene meets a significant challenge, or even a threat. The conducted analysis leads to the conclusion that the Poland’s policy will face signifi cant challenges within NATO and the European Union, and even more signifi cant challenges in terms of its policy towards the East – Russia in particular. The issue, whether all the problems will be handled by the authorities and how they will be solved will result in significant consequences for the international status and role of Poland
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Język francuski jest jednym z niewielu, które obecne są na wszystkich kontynentach świata. Plasuje się on na dziewiątym miejscu wśród najczęściej używanych języków. Włada nim około 3,2% populacji świata. Aż 46,3% osób mówiących językiem francuskim zamieszkuje Afrykę, 44% Europę, 7,6% Amerykę, 1,8% Azję i 0,3% Oceanię13. Wśród krajów frankofońskich wymienić możemy te, w których francuski jest językiem ojczystym i ofi cjalnym; takie, w których ma on status języka ofi cjalnego bądź administracji, i w końcu te, które uprzywilejowują go w nauczaniu. Wśród państw należących do Międzynarodowej Organizacji Frankofonii 29 państw uznaje język francuski za urzędowy.
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W gospodarce światowej można zaobserwować intensywny rozwój dwustronnych porozumień handlowych. W samym tylko regionie Azji i Pacyfi ku w ciągu pięciu lat liczba bilateralnych porozumień o wolnym handlu wzrosła ponad pięciokrotnie, z 57 umów w 2002 r. do 176 w październiku 2006 r. (por. wykres 1). Wśród przyczyn tego zjawiska można wskazać na trudności w negocjacjach na forum Światowej Organizacji Handlu.
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The Northern Sea Route is a shipping lane from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean along the Russian Siberian coast from the Barents Sea to the Bering Strait. Before the beginning of the 21st century it was known as the North East Passage. The idea of a possible passage connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific was fi rst put forward by Gerasimov already in 1525. The Soviet Union gradually developed the entire Northern Sea Route as an internal waterway, in support of the industrial development of its Arctic resources. This route was kept fi rmly closed to foreign vessels. This situation was changed only a few months before the Soviet Union was dissolved, when the Regulations of 1990, in force as of 1st July 1991, formally opened the Northern Sea Route to non-Russian vessels. The Russian Federation claims national jurisdiction over the Northern Sea Route in line with Article 234 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which gives coastal states the right to unilaterally adopt and enforce non-discriminatory laws and environmental regulations in their exclusive economic zones. The Russian Regulations of 1990 set out that all vessels wishing to enter the Northern Sea Route should give a notifi cation and a request for guiding through this route four months beforehand. A vessel should fulfi l special requirements and her Master should be experienced in operating a vessel in ice. It is also inspected by the Russian authorities. While 2009 was a kind of test year for a vessels sailing the entire route from Asia to Europe via the Arctic, 2010 became the breakthrough for commercial shipping along the Northern Sea Route. Sailing from Europe to Asia along the Russia’s Arctic coast takes only two thirds of the time it takes to go through the Suez Canal. The Arctic lane also has the advantage of not being terrorized by pirates off the coasts of Somalia. Taking into account all the efforts of the Russian Federation aimed at upgrading its nuclear and conventional icebreaker fl eet and the ongoing investments in the infrastructure of this route, one can put forward a thesis that the attractiveness of the Northern Sea Route for international shipping is on the rise. There are significant resources in the Arctic region with a promise of generating a good cargo for an economically viable international merchant traffi c through this waterway. Many countries, both European and Asian, in particular China, Japan and South Korea, demonstrate serious interests in the use of the Northern Sea Route. With regard to international navigation, the ice-free Arctic could dramatically change the patterns of the global trade routes.
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W ostatniej dekadzie grupowe techniki analizowania polityki zagranicznej zrobiły zawrotną karierę w instytucjach akademickich, badawczych, wywiadowczych, a także, jak pokazują omówione w tym tekście doświadczenia, okazują się przydatne w dydaktyce stosunków międzynarodowych. Celem jest omówienie zasad stosowania ustrukturyzowanych technik pracy grupowej w analizie stosunków międzynarodowych, pokazanie możliwości, jakie dają te metody oraz ich ograniczeń.
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