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Československá zahraničná politika 1945 – 1992 (vybrané udalosti a fakty v dátumoch)
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Československá zahraničná politika 1945 – 1992 (vybrané udalosti a fakty v dátumoch)

Author(s): Pavol Petruf / Language(s): Slovak

Nie je nijakým tajomstvom, že dejiny zahraničnej politiky určitého štátu – práve tak ako dejiny vo všeobecnosti – nemožno redukovať na číru „katalogizáciu“ jednotlivých historických udalostí a faktov zoradených v časovej postupnosti. Pokus objasniť určitý výsek minulosti len pomocou súboru rozličných základných dát v sebe skrýva úskalie aj preto, že informácie, ktoré takéto dáta obsahujú, sú vždy kusé: ich výpovedná hodnota sa pritom nedá zvýšiť jednoduchým hromadením ďalších základných historických údajov, ale len ich komentovaním alebo zhodnotením v tých prípadoch, keď si to ich povaha a vzájomná podmienenosť vyžaduje. Autor tejto chronologickej príručky vychádzal pri jej príprave z uvedených skutočností, ale zároveň aj z praxou overeného poznatku, že základné historické dáta samé osebe síce nemajú rozhodujúci význam pre poznanie minulosti, ale sú jeho nevyhnutným predpokladom. Navyše umožňujú poukázať na tie stránky minulého vývoja – v našom prípade československej zahraničnej politiky v rokoch 1945-1992 –, ktoré v prácach zovšeobecňujúceho rázu (ale i v učebniciach dejepisu určených pre rozličné typy škôl) chýbajú, lebo ich štruktúra je nevyhnutne iná než vecné členenie a obsahová náplň chronologického prehľadu. Zatiaľ čo v syntetických prá- cach sa v koreláciii so spracúvanou témou kladie dôraz na primeraný výber nosných faktov a čo najúplnejší popis súvislostí medzi nimi, cieľom publikácií zaoberajúcich sa „dejinami v dátumoch“ je priniesť čo najväčšie množstvo relevantných historických dát bez toho, aby sa pri každom uvedenom údaji obligátne poukazovalo na s ním spojené špecifické súvislosti. Tejto praxe sa v zásade pridržiaval aj autor príručky. O širších súvislostiach uvádzaných historických dát sa zmienil iba v tých prípadoch, keď si to ich obsah bezpodmienečne vyžadoval. Išlo najmä o udalosti, ktorých účinky boli dlhodobejšieho rázu, alebo ktoré svojím významom podstatne ovplyvnili agendu a aktivitu československej zahraničnej politiky v sledovanom období. Námatkovo možno v tejto spojitosti spomenúť napríklad Marshallov plán, inváziu vojsk piatich socialistických krajín do ČSSR v auguste 1968, problémy spojené s výstavbou sústavy vodných diel Gabčíkovo – Nagymaros atď. V uvedených prípadoch sa autor usiloval – v rozsahu, ktorý je pre daný typ publikácie únosný – podrobnejšie zachytiť sled s nimi spojených udalostí a súvislostí, alebo o nich aspoň obšírnejšie informovať. Používateľ tohto chronologického prehľadu sa však nesmie domnievať, že v ňom nájde všetky základné historické dáta týkajúce sa československej zahraničnej politiky v rokoch 1945-1992. Kompletná sumarizácia takýchto dát je prakticky nemožná už z technických príčin súvisiacich nielen s ich zhromaždením, ale i s následným publikovaním v rozsahu akceptovateľnom tak pre vydavateľa, ako i používateľa. Pri prácach tohto druhu preto vždy vzniká otázka, ktoré udalosti a fakty do nich zaradiť a ktoré z nich, naopak, vypustiť. Tak prichádza k slovu „subjektívny faktor“, t. j. názor zostavovateľa. Tento faktor je osobitne dôležitý najmä v prípade, ak autorom príručky je jedinec, a nie kolektív pracovníkov rovnako zasvätených do daného druhu práce a pripravených i povinných – najčastejšie formou priebežnej internej oponentúry – korigovať eventuálne nesprávne rozhodnutie týkajúce sa výberu historických dát. Bolo, napríklad, stiahnutie sovietskych vojsk z Afganistanu na sklonku osemdesiatych rokov minulého storočia udalosťou, ktorá stojí za krátku zmienku v chronologickej príručke k dejinám československej zahraničnej politiky v rokoch 1945-1992? V užšom zmysle ňou nemuselo byť, ale v širšom zmysle ňou zrejme bolo, lebo uvedený krok svedčil nielen o prehodnocovaní dovtedajších postojov sovietskeho vedenia k závažným dobovým medzinárodným problémom, ale bol aj signálom, že Kremeľ sa pod tlakom určitých okolností ocitol pred nutnosťou redukovať mocenské ambície ZSSR. Keďže tento fakt nemohol byť z hľadiska historickej perspektívy irelevantný ani pre československú zahraničnú politiku, autor tejto príručky sa priklonil k názoru, že o stiahnutí sovietskych vojsk z Afganistanu sa v nej treba stručne zmieniť. S podobnými dilemami bolo potrené sa vysporiadať v mnohých ďalších prípadoch. Pokiaľ ide o štruktúru práce, jej autor pokladá za potrebné uviesť, že pomerne veľké množstvo a vecná rôznorodosť údajov, ktoré obsahuje, si bezpodmienečne vyžadovali rozdeliť ju do viacerých častí. Ich názvy zreteľne hovoria o ich obsahu a uľahčujú vyhľadá- vanie potrebných údajov. Na ten istý účel slúži i menný register. Na tomto mieste si autor dovoľuje uviesť i niekoľko drobných praktických rád, ktoré môžu používateľovi pomôcť získať o hľadanej položke čo najviac informácií. Ak má záujem zistiť si napríklad údaj o určitej bilaterálnej zmluve uzavretej Československom s inou zmluvnou stranou, stačí mu nazrieť do časti venovanej dvojstranným zmluvám a v príslušnom dokumente vyhľadať požadovaný (základný) údaj (ak pozná rok uzavretia zmluvy alebo jej signatárov, stačí mu pozrieť si príslušný rok alebo si vypomôcť nahliadnutím do menného registra). Ak bola hľadaná zmluva uzavretá v Prahe a používateľ príručky má záujem zistiť, či zmocnenec druhej zmluvnej strany bol prijatý prezidentom republiky alebo iným vtedajším československým ústavným činiteľom, môžu mu byť nápomocné údaje uvedené v častiach týkajúcich sa prijatí hlavou štátu alebo iným ústavným činiteľom; ak potrebuje zistiť, odkedy boli s dotyčnou zmluvnou stranou udržiavané diplomatické styky, môže mu byť užitočná II. časť príručky. Kombináciou údajov z viacerých častí práce možno spravidla vždy získať ucelenejší súbor informácií o hľadanej udalosti alebo nejakom inom akte. Na druhej strane treba ešte raz pripomenúť, že limitovaný rozsah chronologickej príručky neumožnil jej autorovi ani v najväčšej stručnosti informovať napríklad o obsahu rokovaní na zasadaniach Výkonného výboru Rady vzájomnej hospodárskej pomoci. Tieto informácie môže záujemca nájsť buď v publikovaných dokumentoch a knižných prácach uvedených v zozname použitých prameňov a literatúry, alebo v niektorých prípadoch i v dobovej dennej tlači. Hľadanie mu uľahčí informácia o dátume konania príslušného zasadania alebo iného podujatia či udalosti, ktorá je v chronologickej príručke vždy uvedená. A ešte jednu vec nemožno ponechať bez krátkeho komentára: pri veľkom množstve uvádzaných historických dát sa nedá vyhnúť eventuálnemu omylu v datovaní niektorých historických udalostí alebo nepresnosti pri prepise mien niektorých menej známych historických osobností. Jedno i druhé môže byť spôsobené buď rozpornosťou údajov uvádzaných v použitých prameňoch a nevyhnutnosťou prikloniť sa k jednému z nich, alebo i nedopatrením pri prepisovaní textu. Počet takýchto prípadov by však v nijakom prípade nemal presiahnuť tolerovateľnú hranicu. Autor chronologickej príručky si záverom dovoľuje vysloviť názor, že jeho práca pomôže záujemcom o československú zahranič- nú politiku v rokoch 1945-1992 oboznámiť sa aspoň v skromnej miere i s tými jej stránkami a aktivitami, bez poznania ktorých by obraz o nej bol neúplný a azda i skreslený.

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Ľudovít Štúr na hranici dvoch vekov
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Ľudovít Štúr na hranici dvoch vekov

Author(s): / Language(s): Slovak

In the first part of the collective monograph its authors focused on the traditionally understood issues of the life and work of Ľudovít Štúr. They see him as a teacher, thinker, codifier of the standard language and leader of the Slovak national movement in the nineteen forties. They summarize older and bring new knowledge about his family background, political thinking, opinions on Slavonic patriotism, reflection of his figure among historians or in period lexicons. The first chapter written by Martin Kováč presents the relation of Ľ. Štúr to the Lutheran Church of the Augsburg Confession. It served to him as a platform for his fight for the revival of the Slovak nation. Štúr criticized not only a growing influence of magyarization but also of rationalism, superficiality and formalism which struck the Church. Eva Kowalská brought to the foreground the relationship between two prominent families in Uhrovec – the aristocratic family of Zays counts and teacher´s family of Samuel Štúr which the founder of Slovaks´ national movements, Ľ. Štúr, comes from. Both families were tied by personal relations which significantly changed in the course of time. The paper has been drawn up based on archival sources not used so far bringing new knowledge to clarify personal motivations, actions and attitudes of Ľudovít Štúr and his significant opponent Karol Zay. József Demmel reveals a political background of the codification of the standard Slovak language. Gyorgy Kossuth, the uncle of the Hungarian liberal politician Lajos Kossuth, played an important role in it. He belonged to a group of nobility and low nobility (zemianstvo) of the Slovak origin which refused social and political reforms and therefore from its conservative position it declared its support to the Slovak national movement. It was its influence that led Ľ. Štúr to a decision to codify a new standard language and to issue political newspapers in it. The following papers study in different optics the phenomenon of Slavonic integration. The text by Marcela Bednárová points out two major typical traits of Štúr´s concept of Slavonic idea – it is mapping the development of philosophic-mythological and socio-political opinions. According to the author both lines existed in symbiosis and without any contradictions. The paper by Karol Kantek and Eva Kowalská is about the life story of the last Štúr´s (Serbian) student and follower Kosta Kostić: it is in the form of a detective search for a forgotten figure of the past which can be interpreted in the context of inter-Slavonic relations – with ties to the Slovak, Serbian, Russian and Czech environment. Marcel Martinkovič, on the other hand, brings the reader back to the issues concerning theories, concepts and visions – he follows the development of Ľ. Štúr´s opinions on Slavonic patriotism, Europe and Russia. According to his opinion in the after-revolution period Štúr was even messianicly fixed to the Tsarist Russia seen by him as the only guarantor of a spiritual progress and freedom of the Slavs. The chapter written by Alica Kurhajcová shows a portrayal of Ľ. Štúr in Hungarian historiography at the end of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. The author paid attention in particular to the publications of the Hungarian historian and publicist Lajos Steier who dedicated himself to the development of the Slovak issue in Hungary. By analyzing his work she deals not only with interpretation of Štúr, his personage, characteristics and politics but also the period context. The second part of the monograph represented by a larger number of papers is aimed at the so-called second life, i.e. afterlife of Ľ. Štúr. The authors look into the phenomenon of Štúr as a symbol paying attention to its significance for the formation of (collective) historical memory and identity, its use within museum practice, school teaching, art and culture etc. The chapter written by Jana Pácalová deals with the formation of the picture of Ľ. Štúr in the second half of the 19th century. It follows rhetoric and narrative strategies in journalism and in the selected memoire texts of his contemporaries with respect to the categories of memory, identity and subject. It is focused on the reconstruction of Štúr´s biography according to the social demand with the aim to institutionalize collective memory of Štúr. The biography of Ľ. Štúr written by his close associate and friend Jozef Miloslav Hurban of 1881 – 1884 can be considered as such text. Sylvia Hrdlovičová deals with the planning, implementation and placement of two gravestones to the grave of Ľudovít Štúr in the cemetery in Modra. The first gravestone was fixed and funded from the national collection in 1872 and the second one, a complex sepulchral site was definitely completed in 1964. The paper pays attention to public manifestation gatherings at the grave, celebrations of Štúr after 1918 and creation of other memorials devoted to Ľ. Štúr in the territory of Modra. The chapter of Daniela Kodajová is similarly focused and it analyzes celebrations and commemoration ceremonies related to the personage of Ľ. Štúr. The author attaches a big national-identification and national-integration importance to them. Peter Macho concentrated in this regard on a concrete personality as a public speaker at celebrations devoted to Štúr: he analyzes messages of ceremonial speeches and lectures of Bishop Samuel Štefan Osuský who was also the chairman of the Štúr Lutheran Society. Ľuboš Kačírek gives insight into the beginnings of the formation of Slovak collecting aimed at the personality of Ľ. Štúr, collecting of tangible relics related to his personality from the nineteen sixties within the Matica slovenská (Slovak Source) and Slovak Museum Society. In 1965, at the occasion of celebrations of his 150th anniversary, museums of Ľ. Štúr were founded in Uhrovec and Modra. This period covers also the construction of a memorial Štúr log cabin in Kohlwald in the Levočská valley and its exhibition was opened to the public only in May 1974. Further development of museum exhibitions related to the Štúr generation was initiated by the Matica slovenská and its department Slovak Literature Memorial (later the Literature-Museum Department). According to Beáta Mihalkovičová the foundation of Ľ. Štúr Museum in Modra was affected from the very beginning by a struggle for its character and priority orientation. The town of Modra suggested that a district museum of national history should be established and named by Ľ. Štúr but the academia and scientists, on the other hand, planned the foundation of a specialized personal museum of national significance devoted exclusively to Ľ. Štúr. The conflict lasted for several years and ended by a compromise. There was another conflict with regard to the concept of presentation of Ľudovít Štúr, whether the exhibition should concentrate only on the personality of Štúr or it should be placed into a quite broad literary and language context. Jozef Ambruš stood behind the birth of the museum, designed the introductory exhibition, as well as the libretto and scenario of the first permanent exhibition, however, it was implemented according to the scenario of Imrich Sedlák and lasted from 1978 to 2006. Adelaida Mezeiová analyzed Slovak language and literature textbook for secondary schools. The textbooks supported the creation of the portrayal of Ľ. Štúr as an ideal, charismatic leader, great organizer of the national life, excellent linguist and a man devoted to higher goals ready to give up his personal life in favour of a lofty ideal. The textbooks compared proved the thesis that the subject of Slovak language at school education had the effect of a state-forming and nation-forming subject and was prioritized within the system of school subjects. According to Juliana Beňová, Ľ. Štúr played an important role in the activities of Slovak non-professional actors in the mid-19th century. He supported theatre also in his newspapers, published theatre critical reviews and art news. He appeared on the stage of professional theatre in the 20th century as a drama character. Not only his fate but also the lives of other protagonists of the national history revived on the stage while their creators presented them in various ways – from a traditional visualisation of the personality through accentuation of mysterious life moments up to reinterpretation and demystification of the fates of Slovak Romanticists. In her paper, Katarína Beňová deals with the portraying of Ľ. Štúr, his followers and other representatives of nationally active intelligentsia by Slovak artists (Jozef Božetech Klemens, Peter Michal Bohúň) while she emphasizes the ties of Slovak painters with the Czech patriotic environment of the 19th century. It shows, inter alia, a so far unknown portrait of Jozef Miloslav Hurban from Hungarian collections. Zbyšek Šustek maps the figure of Ľ. Štúr from numismatic point of view. It was for the first time that Martin Benka chose Štúr as a leitmotif on several designs of a twenty crown note in the early nineteen forties. It was for composition reason that his portrait was finally placed on a ten crown note in 1944. Later on he was portrayed on two commemorative coins and two banknotes. During the process of their preparation, however, he appeared on a large number of ideological designs of a legal tender. Štúr also appeared as a frequent motif of the designs of themes for the Slovak side of euro coins, however, other motifs won in the public survey. Commemorative and numismatic coins issued at the occasion of his bicentennial celebration in 2015 was the last opportunity to portray him on a legal tender.

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Thurzovci a ich historický význam
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Thurzovci a ich historický význam

Author(s): / Language(s): Slovak

Das vorliegende Sammelband „Die Thurzo und ihre historische Bedeutung“ ist das Ergebnis der Zusammenarbeit von Historikern aus der Slowakei, Ungarn und Deutschland. Die Grundlage für die Entstehung dieser Publikation bereitete die internationale Konferenz, die im Jahre 2009 anlässlich des 400. Jahrestags der Wahl von Georg Thurzo zum ungarischen Palatin veranstaltet wurde. Die anregungsvolle Tagung und Diskussion, sowie die weiteren Untersuchungen zum Thema boten genügend Unterlagen für die Zusammenfassung der Beiträge in einem Sammelband. Das erste Kapitel trägt den Titel Der Weg in die ungarische Aristokratie und hier werden die wichtigsten Vertreter des Geschlechts Thurzo vorgestellt, die sich am meisten um seinen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Aufstieg verdienten. Géza Pálffy analysiert in dem Unterkapitel Die Familie Thurzo und ihre Stellung in der ungarischen Aristokratie die Karrieremöglichkeiten im Königreich Ungarn am Ende des Mittelalters und zu Beginn der Frühen Neuzeit, sowie die Möglichkeiten, die die einzelnen Mitglieder des Geschlechts nutzten, um ihre Ambitionen zu erfüllen. Marián Skladaný widmet sich im Unterkapitel Der wirtschaftliche Aufstieg der Thurzo den ersten Vertretern der Familie, die zuerst zum niederen Adel gehörten und für eine gewisse Zeit zum Bürgertum wechselten, damit sie sich der kaufmännischen und unternehmerischen Tätigkeit widmen und den Wohlstand der Familie begründen konnten. Gabriella Erdélyi stellt in ihrem Beitrag „Ich bin nur ein Mensch, mein König, kein Stein“ – Alexius Thurzo im Dienst der Habsburger einen der einflussreichsten Thurzo-Männer vor, dessen kaufmännisch-unternehmerische Tätigkeit den ganzen mitteleuropäischen Raum umfasste, wobei er auch wichtige Funktionen vertrat und zu den Vertrauensmännern des Herrschers Ferdinand I. und der Königin Maria von Ungarn gehörte. Ein weiteres bedeutendes Familienmitglied präsentiert Lajos Gecsényi im Unterkapitel Der rätselhafte Thurzo. Franz Thurzo, der Präsident der Ungarischen Kammer und der Hofkammer (1549 – 1563). Das zweite Kapitel widmet sich dem Thema Die Thurzo und die Reformation. Mehrere Mitglieder des Geschlechts gehörten zur hohen Kirchenhierarchie und wurden vordergründig durch ihre Kontakte zu Humanisten und ihr großzügiges Mäzenatentum bekannt. Einen der bedeutendsten Bischöfe aus der Familie Thurzo stellt Martin Rothkegel im Unterkapitel Die Beziehungen des Olmützer Bischofs Stanislaus I. Thurzo zu Ungarn vor. Die Reformation fand unter den Mitgliedern des Geschlechts auch zahlreiche Anhänger, über sie schreibt Zoltán Csepregi in seinem Beitrag Die Thurzo und die Anfänge der Reformation. Diejenigen Vertreter der Familie, die ihr Reichtum auf der unternehmerischen Tätigkeit begründeten, dachten auch auf ihre weniger wohlhabenden Mitmenschen und gründeten mehrere Stiftungen zu ihrer Unterstützung. Tünde Katona stellt in diesem Zusammenhang in ihrem Beitrag die Leutschauer Stiftung der Thurzo vor. Das dritte Kapitel wird der Problematik der Höfe der Thurzo als Zentren des wirtschaftlichen, politischen und gesellschaftlichen Lebens gewidmet. Die Thurzo erlebten einen interessanten Übergang von den adeligen in den bürgerlichen Stand und von dem Reichtum, das sich durch ihre unternehmerische Tätigkeit angehäuft hatte, kauften sie Gutsherrschaften, damit sie erneut nicht nur in den Adelsstand zurückkehren, sondern gleich in die Aristokratie aufsteigen konnten. Tünde Lengyelová untersucht Die wirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse an den Gutsherrschaften der Thurzo an der Wende des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts. Einen wesentlichen Aufgabenbereich des Palatins stellte die Verwaltungsagenda dar, über die Péter Dominkovits in seinem Beitrag Die Kontakte des Palatins Georg Thurzo zu den Komitaten Ödenburg und Eisenburg einen Überblick bietet. Einen Blick in das Alltagsleben an den Höfen gewähren in ihren Beiträgen Diana Duchoňová im Unterkapitel Die Hofordnungen an den Höfen der Thurzo und der Esterházy, sowie Borbála Benda, die sich der Speisekarte von Stanislaus Thurzo aus dem Jahre 1603 widmet. Das vierte Kapitel befasst sich mit den verschiedenen Formen des Kulturnachlasses der Thurzo. Zuzana Ludiková und Árpád Mikó präsentieren die Bestattungsstätten und Grabdenkmäler der Thurzo nicht nur als Symbole ihrer Macht, sondern auch als künstlerische Ausdrucksformen. Eine bedeutende Quelle zur genealogischen Untersuchungen stellen die Hochzeitseinladungen der Thurzo dar, die Frederik Federmayer näher beschreibt. In dem umfangreichen heimatkundlichen Werk von Matthias Bel wären die genealogischen Forschungen des Polyhistors fast untergegangen, deshalb richtet Gergely Tóth den Blick gerade auf diesen Aspekt in seinem Beitrag „Theatrum Nobilitatis Hungaricae“. Die genealogischen Untersuchungen von Matthias Bel mit besonderem Augenmerk auf die Familie Thurzo. Zu den wichtigsten Mäzentätigkeiten der Thurzo gehörten die Förderung der Studenten an ausländischen Universitäten, sowie die Veröffentlichung von verschiedenen Publikationen und die Unterstützung von Druckereien. Über derartige Aktivitäten des Palatins und seiner Familienmitglieder schreibt Helena Saktorová in ihrem Beitrag Die Persönlichkeit von Georg Thurzo im Spektrum seiner Autorendedikationen. Mit dem schriftlichen Nachlass der Familie Thurzo im Staatsarchiv von Bytča befasst sich Jana Kurucárová. Die Ergebnisse einer außergewöhnlichen und seltenen Untersuchung präsentieren die Anthropologen Milan Thurzo und Radoslav Beňuš in ihrem Beitrag Die anthropologische und paläopathologische Analyse der Gebeine der Familienmitglieder von Georg Thurzo. Damit gewähren sie einen einzigartigen Einblick in den gesundheitlichen Zustand von mehreren Vertretern dieses Geschlechts. Arwa, heute Orava war die grösste Gutsherrschaft der Thurzo und die hießige Burg gehörte zu den bedeutendsten Zentren der Familie, aus diesem Grund widmeten sie eine besondere Aufmerksamkeit ihrer architektonischen Gestaltung, die Michal Čajka in seinem Beitrag Die Umbauten der Burg von Orava in der Zeit der Thurzo schildert. Die Publikation enthält eine Reihe von neuen Kenntnissen, die das Ergebnis von intensiven Untersuchungen mehrerer Historiker, Kirchenhistoriker, Archäologen, Anthropologen, Archivaren und Kunsthistoriker darstellen. Trotzdem gibt es noch genügend Themen und Fragen, die auf Aufarbeitung warten und weitere Anregungen für Forschungen über diese interessante Familie darbieten, deren Mitglieder nicht nur zur übernationalen Aristokratie des Königreichs Ungarn und der mitteleuropäischen Habsburgermonarchie, sondern auch zu den außerordentlich begabten Unternehmern, Politikern, Soldaten und bedeutenden Vertretern des kulturellen Lebens an der Schwelle des Mittelalters zur Frühen Neuzeit gehörten.

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Tradícia a dejiny. Vybrané otázky zo slovensko-maďarských a slovensko-ruských vzťahov (1934-1949)
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Tradícia a dejiny. Vybrané otázky zo slovensko-maďarských a slovensko-ruských vzťahov (1934-1949)

Author(s): Dagmar Čierna-Lantayová / Language(s): Slovak

Výbery z diel niektorých autorov, publikované v poslednom období, stále častejšie ilustrujú fakt, že celá generácia historikov pomaly, ale isto starne a nebodaj i odchádza. A človek si napokon prekvapene uvedomí svoju príslušnosť k tejto skupine seniorov, za posledné roky vyzdvihovanej i zatracovanej. Na pranieri istej časti verejnosti sa mnohokrát ocitli najmä odborníci z novších domácich dejín, nakoľko medzi bežnými čitateľmi sa vždy nájdu jednotlivci, ktorí si čo to ešte pamätajú a po svojom aj hodnotia. V zložitej sústave historiografie možno hovoriť o určitej „výhode“, keď sa výskumník venuje predovšetkým otázkam všeobecných dejín a domáce udalosti konfrontuje s dianím v zahraničí. Hoci i tu možno nájsť úskalia, ak sledujeme témy v nedávnej minulosti zamlčované, či priamo zakázané. Pre tento zväzok vyberám niektoré z textov, publikovaných za posledných pätnásť rokov, teda v čase, keď sa konečne otvorila možnosť uzavretú tematiku spracovať: dovtedy boli do veľkej miery tabuizované archívne pramene k oficiálne utajovaným faktom a udalostiam. Sledovať problémy nahromadené do vzťahov Slovenska k Maďarsku a Rusku (v rámci ČSR alebo aj samostatne), za obdobie od roku 1934 do roku 1949, znamená sledovať mimoriadne zložité a zauzlené udalosti. A práve z tohto okruhu svojich záujmov som zvolila tematický záber ponúkaného výberu. Iba jedna kapitola sa vymyká z daného chronologického členenia a posúva sa do roku 1956. V niektorých príspevkoch, kratších i dlhších, publikovaných s rôznym odstupom, nebolo možné zachovať kontinuitu deja a neopakovať isté základné údaje. S tým sa napokon musí vo svojich publikáciách vyrovnať každý historik. Usporiadať texty prísne tematicky, alebo podľa skúmaného obdobia, sa ukázalo dosť zložité, nakoľko sa v sledovaných problémoch musím doslova posúvať tam i späť po rámcovej časovej línii. Napokon som celú knihu rozdelila na dva celky – Slovensko a Maďarsko, Slovensko a Sovietsky zväz – a v nich jednotlivé kapitoly označila rokom vydania a zaradila postupne. Témy, na ktoré sa v tomto výbere sústreďujem, prinášajú veľké množstvo najrozličnejších rozporných otázok, načrtávajú prístup vedúcich politikov ČSR, Slovenska, Maďarska a Ruska k formovaniu zahraničnej politiky, vrátane vzťahov, v mimoriadne zložitom období. V situácii, keď sa nacistická mašinéria vydávala na pochod cez málo stabilnú a rozhádanú Európu, je mimoriadne zaujímavé sledovať názory, motiváciu a konanie vládnucich kruhov jednotlivých krajín, ale i reakcie rôznych politických strán a zoskupení. Krátka medzihra, za trvania diplomatických vzťahov medzi ľudáckou Bratislavou a komunistickou Moskvou, v období pred začiatkom druhej svetovej vojny, dlhé roky zatajovaná, ilustruje nielen politický pokus pod dozorom Berlína, ale aj vnú- torné korene dobového slovenského rusofilstva. Z nášho hľadiska si zasluhujú pozornosť zahraničnopolitické úvahy reprezentantov rôzneho názorového zamerania, ich protirečenia, predstavy, nádeje a sklamania. Všetky otvorené otázky z obdobia vojny sa od roku 1945, v mierne modifikovanej podobe, znova dostávali na diplomatickú scénu a podnecovali rozpory zainteresovaných štátov. Pre malé krajiny strednej a juhovýchod nej Európy, ktoré sa napokon ocitli v područí Sovietskeho zväzu, ovládaného J. V. Stalinom, začala dlhá a strastiplná cesta k vzdialenej vidine slobody. Nie všetky problémy, na ktoré sa vo svojej práci zameriavam, našli v historickej obci na Slovensku ďalších záujemcov a pokračovateľov. Ale i tak, predstavovať opakovane niekoľko starších či novších štúdií stavia autora do zložitej situácie. Veď za posledné roky začali publikovať mladí historici, doma i v zahraničí, a k niektorým vybraným otázkam priniesli nové poznatky aj svieže pohľady. To je však prirodzený postup a nám, starším, ostáva iba nádej, že nastupujúci kolegovia nezatratia doterajšie výsledky. Historik môže dlho či zdĺhavo a viac-menej zaujímavo písať o svojej práci, vysvetľovať svoje myšlienky či pohnútky a podrobne rozoberať jednotlivé ponúkané texty. Ja nemám v úmysle objasňovať alebo ospravedlňovať svoju motiváciu, veď konečný obraz si aj tak vytvára každý kritický čitateľ. Problémy, ktorými sa zaoberám, sú neobyčajne zauzlené a ani v okruhu slovenských autorov sme sa nedopracovali k zhodnému pohľadu. V mojom prípade sa však porovnávanie názorov dotýka predovšetkým maďarských a ruských historikov, nakoľko svojím zameraním sa predsa len do veľkej miery vyčleňujem z tematiky čisto národných dejín. Predložený výber textov ponúka dosť prí- ležitostí na zamyslenie.

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Tri jazyky, štyri konfesie. Etnická a konfesionálna pluralita na Zemplíne, Spiši a v Šariši
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Tri jazyky, štyri konfesie. Etnická a konfesionálna pluralita na Zemplíne, Spiši a v Šariši

Author(s): Peter Šoltés / Language(s): Slovak

Seit dem Mittelalter war das nordöstliche Teil des Königreichs Ungarn ein Grenzgebiet von drei ethnisch-sprachlichen Gemeinschaften, der ruthenischen/russinischen, slowakischen und ungarischen. Außerdem hat sich in diesem Raum die westliche, lateinische kirchliche Tradition mit der östlichen, byzantinisch-slawischen getroffen. Im Unterschied zum westlichen Europa haben sich in diesem Milieu im Rahmen des Prozesses der Konfessionalisierung nicht drei, sondern fünf Konfessionskirchen etabliert. Die inneren Migrationen auch innerhalb eines Komitats bewirkten hier die Veränderungen an der ethnischen und konfessionellen Karte. Nach den ständischen Aufstände und Verdrängung des Osmanischen Reiches aus Ungarn blieben weitläufige Teile der nordöstlichen Komitate entvölkert. Die Migration der Ruthenen/Russinen vom gebirgigen, wenig fruchtbaren Norden nach Süden, die sich am Ende des 17. und in erster Hälfte des 18. Jahrhundert in Bewegung setzte, hat einen enormen Ausmaß erreicht, sodass für seine Bezeichnung man in der Literatur eine Metapher über die „Ausuferung des ruthenischen Flusses“ finden kann. Die Massenmigration der sozialen Gruppe, die in Quellen unter den Namen Rutheni (lateinisch), Oroszok (ungarisch), Rusnáci (slowaksich), Ruthenen (deutsch) auftauchen, hat zur Erweiterung der griechisch-katholischen Kirchenorganisation in das Milieu der katholischprotestantischen Konfrontation geführt. Gleichzeitig haben sich im Rahmen der Migration die Ruthenen in die ethnisch slowakische und ungarische Umwelt ausgeweitet. Vor dieser Massenwelle war das nordöstliche Ungarn horizontal in drei relativ kompakten ethnisch-konfessionellen Gebieten geteilt. Am deutlichsten sieht man es am Beispiel des Zempliner Komitats, das sich von der polnischen Grenze bis zum Tokayer Gebirge erstreckt. In seinem nördlichen Drittel hat das ruthenische und konfessionell griechisch-katholische Element überwogen, im mittleren Teil dominierten die Slowaken, die konfessionell zwischen Römisch-katholische, Lutheraner und Kalvinisten geteilt waren. Auf den breiten Streifen der gemischten, slowakisch-ungarischen Dorfer knüpfte das ethnisch ungarische Milieu mit der Vorherschaft der reformierten Konfession an. Die empirische Forschung ist auf den Gebiet der Komitaten Zemplen, Scharos und Zips im nordöstlichen Ungarn fokussiert. Im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert gab es hier eine der höchsten Konzentration an lokalen Gemeinschaften mit vier Kirchengemeinden und mit drei ethnischen Gruppen. Im Laufe des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts formte sich hier, an Peripherie, ein Zwischenraum mit einer außergewöhnlichen Intensität der interethnischen und interkonfessionellen Kommunikation. Sie führte zur Formgebung des sozialen Milieus mit ausgeprägter Pluralität nicht nur im Rahmen einer größeren geographischen Einheit, sondern auch in kleinen Lokalgemeinschaften. Sie prägte die soziale Realität in einem breiten Streifen der Dörfer mit vier Kirchengemeinden und drei Ethnien. Jede Kirchengemeinde hatte eigene liturgische Sprache und auch andere Schrift – die Lutheraner das Tschechische, die Griechisch-katholischen das Kirchenslawische, die Römisch-katholischen das Lateinische, die Kalvinisten das Ungarische und in etwa 20 Dorfer auch den Zempliner Dialekt. Die Unterschiede bestanden auch im Kalender und Kirchenfeiertage, in Formen der Religiosität und Volksfrömmigkeit. Der soziale Status der Priester, die Form der Rekrutierung und Qualität der theologischen und katechetischen Bildung war bei den griechisch-katholischen Popen lange Zeit niedriger, als in den übrigen Konfessionskirchen. Die kulturanthropologischen Forschungen über die gegenseitigen Kontakte und Beziehungen von verschiedenen sozialen Gruppen haben eindeutig gezeigt, dass die ethnischen, religiösen, sozialen und anderen Arten von Gruppen in den Vorstellungen der Menschen hierarchisch abgestuft sind. Jeder Gruppe ist in der hierarchischen Struktur eine bestimmte Stelle vorbehalten, von welchem sie sich in erster Linie um sich selbst und um die höher stehenden Gruppen interessiert. Die Gruppen der Minoritätsoder Subordinationsstellung nimmt man als uninteressant und minderwertig. Diese Erscheinung ist in der Soziologie gut bekannt und man ordnet sie zu den universalen Figurationen. Eine soziale Gruppe, die über größere Macht verfügt, schafft über sich selbst ein positiveres Bild, als über die schwächere Gruppe(n). Bei ihren Mitgliedern befestigt sich die Überzeugung, dass sie nicht nur stärker ist, sie besitzt im ökonomischen, sowie symbolischen Sinne mehr Kapital und deswegen entwickelter und wertvoller ist. Norbert Elias nannte diese Figuration Etablierten– Außenseiter. Die Quelle der Macht, die diese Dominanz ermöglichen, können unterschiedlicher Art sein – rassische, religiöse, ethnische, sozialer Ursprung, usw. Es besteht aber noch eine spezifische Begünstigung, die lange Zeit außer Betracht blieb, und zwar die Altertümlichkeit des Wohnens an einem konkreten Gebiet. Wie sieht es aber aus mit der Plausibilität der Etablierten– Außenseiter Paradigma unter Bedingungen einer ausgeprägten, durch die Migration zugefügten Pluralität? In Situationen, wenn die lokale Gemeinschaft aus drei, oder mehr sozialen Gruppen bestand, war die Dominanz des Stärkeren nicht so eindeutig und ausgeprägt. Die Kommunikation war schon in der ersten Generation nach der Ansiedlung intensiv sogar in solchen Bereichen, die üblicherweise mittels der Distanzierung und Stigmatisierung ausgeschlossen sein sollten: Mischehen, Konversionen oder in einer „fremden“ Kirchengemeinschaft praktizierte Frömmigkeit. Bei der Suche nach den Ursachen der leichteren Durchlässigkeit von interethnischen und interkonfessionellen Grenzen muss ein Faktor besonders hervorgehoben werden, der vom Anfang die sozialen Bindungen zwischen den Altangesessenen und Zugewanderten geprägt hat und zwar die große Entvölkerung. Im Zempliner Komitat war im Jahre 1715 nur jede dritte Bauernschaft bewohnt, etliche Dörfer fanden die Konskriptoren vollkommen entvölkert. Die Depopulation hat in diesem Zwischenraum die Desintegration der Familien- und Nachbarnbindungen, sowie der anderen sozialen Netzwerke in der Gemeinde verursacht. Der Vorteil, über den normalerweise die sozial geschlossene, miteinander gebundene Gruppe der alten Bewohner gegenüber der meistens heterogenen Masse der Zugewanderten verfügt, wurde erheblich entkräftet. Bei Wiederherstellung der Siedlungsstruktur war eine konsequente, distanzierende Einstellung der „ursprünglichen“ von den „neuen“ nicht zu erhalten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für das Durchdringen der ruthenen in die neuen Gebiete hat die Ungwarer Union im Jahre 1646 geschafft. Sie hat die kirchenrechtlichen und theologischen Grenzen zwischen den Gläubigen des lateinischen und des byzantinisch-slawischen Ritus abgeschafft, die Voraussetzungen auch für die Relativierung und Milderung der kulturellen und mentalen Barrieren gelegt und ihren Konfliktpotential reduziert. Einige Unterschiede zwischen der östlichen und der westlichen kirchlichen Tradition haben jedoch zur Entstehung von verschiedenen Figurationen. Am deutlichsten sieht man die Tendenz zur Entgrenzung der konfessionellen Identität an der Zahl der konfessionell gemischten Ehen und an unterschiedlichen Modellen der Kindererziehung in konfessionell heterogenen Haushalten. Die gesetzliche und gleichzeitig auch kirchenrechtliche Norm, die diese Situation regulieren sollte war die Reverspflicht. Vor der Eheschließung musste der nichtkatholische Partner einen Revers unterschreiben, in dem er mit der katholischen Erziehung aller Kinder zugestimmt hat. Die Verletzungen unterlagen einer strengen Strafverfolgung. Der Staatsapparat war in manchen Gebieten, unter anderem im Zempliner und Scharoscher Komitat, nicht imstande, die Achtung dieser Norm konsequent durchzusetzen. Es zeugen darüber die regelmäßigen Berichte der Bischofe und der Komitatsverwaltung an die Statthalterei, in welchen die Zahlen der Verletzungen angegeben waren. Die Skale der Losungen war ziemlich breit, von der Akzeptanz einer Konfession für alle Kinder, was aber nicht immer die katholische war, unterschiedliche Erziehung der Töchter und Söhne, Befolgung des ältesten, oder mindestens eines Sohns in der Vatersglaube u.a. Manche Eltern haben die Frage noch spektakulärer gelöst. Sie haben ihre Kinder nur taufen lassen und alle anderen Sakramente (Kommunion, Firmung, Konfirmation u.s.w.) auf die Zeit verlegt, als ihre Kinder selbst die Entscheidung treffen könnten, zu welcher Konfessionskirche sie angehören wollen. Ausmaß der Einhaltung des Reverses und die konkrete Lösung der Frage der kirchlichen Zugehörigkeit der Kinder haben die folgenden Faktoren geprägt: Fähigkeit der protestantischen Altbewohner ihre „Dominanz“, im Betreff an ihr ökonomisches und symbolisches Potential gegenüber dem griechisch-katholischen Teil der Lokalgemeinschaft zu behaupten, die Aktivität und soziale Prestige der lokalen Geistlichen und die soziale Prestige der Ehepartner. Das Toleranzpatent hat diese Frage gesetzlich neu geregelt, in dem die männlichen Nachkommen eines protestantischen Vater in seiner Konfession fortsetzen könnten. Bei allen anderen Fällen war der Vorzug der staatlichen Religion behalten. Von den konfessionellen Gruppen haben bei den Mischehen die griechisch-katholischen Partner die stärkste Tendenz dem Druck der Umgebung in der Sache der konfessionellen Zugehörigkeit der Kinder zu unterlegen. Man sieht es auch an der Zahl der durch die Ehe motivierten Konversionen. Die schwächere Resistenz der Griechisch-katholischen hing mit ihrer niedrigeren sozialen Stellung, mit der asymmetrischen sozialen Struktur und Absenz der politischen und ökonomischen Elite. Besonders in einer Minderheitsstellung im Rahmen der Lokalgemeinschaft waren sie oft auch mit der Wahrnehmung der „neuen“, „nicht autochthonen“ Glaube konfrontiert. Zusammen mit dem verspäteten Verlauf der Disziplinierung des Klerus waren diese Tatsachen bei den kirchenrechtlichen Streiten, zwischen dem römischkatholischen und griechisch-katholischen Klerus instrumentalisiert. Im den nächsten Generationen hat sich die asymmetrische soziale Schichtung in den gemischten lokalen Gemeinschaften gelockert und unter den wohlhabenden Bauern waren auch die Griechisch-katholischen ausgeprägter vertreten. In gleicher Zeit, etwa seit den 80er Jahren des 18. Jahrhunderts hat sich auch die Qualität des griechisch-katholischen Klerus, ihre theologische Vorbereitung, ökonomische Sicherstellung dem lateinischen Klerus wenn nicht ausgeglichen, dann mindestens wesentlich annähert haben. Die Unterschiede zwischen dem julianischen und dem gregorianischen Kalender und in Kirchenfeiertagen stellten eine andere Herausforderung für die interkonfessionelle Kommunikation. Die lokalen Gemeinschaften haben nach einem solchen Model gestrebt, das die religiöse Identität keiner der betroffenen Kirchengemeinde verletzen oder verunsichern würde. Die schmutzigen und schweren Feld- und Hausarbeiten hat man in den Feiertagen, egal welcher Kirchengemeinde nicht gemacht, damit es nicht zu den Vorfällen kam, dass ein Teil des Dorfes in die Kirche geht, während der andere sich an ihren Feldern abmüht. Es entstanden verschiedene lokalen Normen, die bei der Lösung dieses Problems die demographische und soziale Schichtspaltung der Dorfgemeinde, die Einstellung der Pfarrer, der Landesherren, die Häufigkeit der Mischehen und andere Faktoren berücksichtigt haben. Oft standen die religiösen Bedürfnisse der Dorfgemeinde im Gegensatz mit den Interessen der Landesherren, für welche die doppelte Zahl der Feiertage die wirtschaftliche Effektivität negativ beeinflusst hat. Seit 1780er Jahren hat der Staat die Maßnahmen zur Regulierung dieses Problems unternommen. Die josephinischen Verordnungen, sowie die späteren Versuche von Kaiser Franz den Zweiten, die den gregorianischen Kalender auf dem ganzen Gebiet der Monarchie einführen wollten gehörten zu den Gesetzen, die nicht durchgesetzt werden könnten. Aber die Unterschiede im kirchlichen Kalender waren auch zur demonstrativen Präsentation der symbolischen Dominanz und der religiösen Überlegenheit instrumentalisiert. Es könnte um individuelle Aktivitäten der Einzelpersonen gehen, sowie um gemeinsame Demonstration der Obermacht von der Seite der ganzen Kirchengemeinde, an der Spitze mit dem Pfarrer oder dem Landesherr. Die leichte Durchlässigkeit der konfessionellen Grenzen äußerte sich auch in der Rezeption von Elementen der barocken Frömmigkeit wie Rosenkranzgebet, Litaneien oder Kreuzwegandacht verbreiteten sich auch unter den Gläubigen des östlichen Ritus. Neben der „Barockisierung“ der Ikonostasen fand man in griechisch-katholischen Kirchen oft Statuen oder Nebenaltäre vor. Der westlichen Tradition nach passte man zudem auch das liturgische Kleid, die Länge der Bärte und des Haares an. Dieser Prozess der Akkulturation intensivierte sich nach der Synode in Zamość (1720), an welcher die griechisch-katholischen Bistümer im Königreich Polen die Dekrete des Tridentinums angenommen und dem östlichen Ritus angepasst. Die Beschlusse der Synode in Zamość waren ein paar Jahre später auch für das griechischkatholische Bistum in Munkacs obligatorisch. Der griechische Ritus hat im 18. Jahrhundert den Übergang aus der konfessionell homogenen Welt in das Milieu der konfessionellen Pluralität geschafft. Die Etablierung der dritten, in manchen Ortschaften gar der vierten Konfessionskirche, der griechisch-katholischen Kirche, hat dabei die interkonfessionelle Kommunikation tiefgreifend beeinflusst. Während in den bikonfessionellen Lokalgesellschaften die sozialen Normen zur konfessionellen Homogenisierung geführt haben, auf dem breiten Gebiet des nordöstlichen Ungarns eine solche Entwicklung unausführbar war. Die intensive interethnische und interkonfessionelle Kommunikation, die infolge der massiven Depopulation und Migration fasst eine demographische Notwendigkeit war, führte nicht nur zur einer schnellen Entgrenzung der kulturellen Unterschiede, sondern auch, wie man es am Beispiel der slowakisch und ungarisch sprechenden ruthenen, also Griechisch-katholischen sehen kann, zu ihrer Hybridisierung. Infolge der sprachlichen Assimilation der ruthenischen Migranten hat sich der homogene ethnische Charakter der Ecclesia Ruthenica verändert. Die Korrelation der ethnischen und religiösen Identität blieb aber noch lange Zeit den griechisch-katholischen Gläubigen inhärent. Die Tendenz der stärkeren sozialen Gruppe, die Kontakte seinen Mittglieder mit den „anderen“ zu stigmatisieren war in dem vorgestellten „Zwischenraum“ von Anfang an wesentlich geschwächt. Im langfristigen Horizont führte es zur Formgebung einer Art der Mentalität, für die ein hohes Maß der Toleranz und Resistenz gegenüber der konfessionellen oder nationalen Mobilisierung charakteristisch war.

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Túžby, projekty a realita. Slovensko v medzivojnovom období
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Túžby, projekty a realita. Slovensko v medzivojnovom období

Author(s): Alena Bartlová / Language(s): Slovak

The monograph consists of 15 studies and articles published by the author in a number of periodicals in the period of her over forty years’ career in the Slovak Academy of Sciences Historical Institute. Describing the important events, efforts, needs and programs of the Slovak people in interwar Czechoslovakia, the author divides the studies into three parts: dealing with the political history of Slovakia in part one, focusing on the significant economic issues in part two, and following the fate of notable individuals involved in public and social affairs in part three. In addition, the development related with Martin, the town of great importance also for the interwar period, is closely surveyed; finally the author gives some thoughts to the impact of dramatic art on the cultural advancement of Slovakia. The author commences with the question in what extent the general public of the Slovaks and Czechs was ready to constitute a common state, concluding that both the Czech and the Slovak political leaders had aspirations concerning disintegration of Austria-Hungary which was considered a real impediment of the development and progress of the two nations. In the last months of the world war the Slovak political representatives, making every effort to get emancipated from Hungary, formed a joint representative body, the Slovak National Council, and later - with a substantial Czech assistance – they started to build the foundations of the new administrative, educational and judicial systems. New political parties, attracting fresh supporters, appeared with various programs, taking into consideration the actual gloomy social situation of the majority of the Slovak population living in poverty with little or no national awareness and political experience. The situation in the Czech part of the state was quite different. The Czech political and economic representatives, having built - over the decades - a full structure of the national educational system (from elementary schools to universities), a network of effective political parties represented by tenths of members in the Vienna Imperial Parliament, could rely on the support of thousands nationally conscious, politically organized and economically prosperous citizens. The differences between the Slovak and Czech society during the months of the preparation for, and during, the political coup d’etat 1918 resulted also in the relationship of the two nations, determining their status, desires, programs, as well as the actualities of everyday life in the whole period of twenty years between the world wars. At the end of the twenties and the beginning of the thirties years there was a new generation of public offi cers brought up by the democratic educational system and political representation, who realized that any outstanding, strictly formulated projects of inevitable changes in the social and economic system would be just hollow aspirations similar to the those expressed in the Petition to the Emperor in the 19th century, unless the people of Slovakia gained adequate share in the political power. For the first step into the road to succeed in winning such position it was necessary to unite the political forces. The first signal of entering the course to this goal was the establishment of the National Economy Institute of Slovakia proposed by M. Hodža and supported by all the political parties, even the governmental authorities. A number of important activities were organized, among them several signifi cant attempts to unite the political parties, e.g. the Meeting of Young Intelligence held in Trenčianske Teplice in 1932, and other events. Seemingly, these actions could have been provoked by the world economic crisis and its ruthless consequences. However, the crisis just revealed serious dragging problems of Slovakia left behind unattended for years by the government. Quite naturally, this was a good fuel for a successful drive of anti-governmental opposition parties taking advantage of the situation and aiming to seize the power to carry out their own programs. In addition, the international situation in 1938, supportive of fundamental changes in the political system in Czechoslovakia, made it possible for a section of the opposition to spin the wheel of fate of the Slovak people. Under unusually dramatic circumstances, a great opportunity opened up for the incoming generation that tried to apply the knowledge and skills accumulated in the course of twenty years of the political, economic, and cultural struggle in the Pre-Munich Czechoslovakia. The second part of the monograph includes some results of the author’s study of the Slovak economic history with primary focus on food processing, and incidental problems related with the world economic crisis striking Slovak economy in 1929-1934 with some sectors suffering until 1938. In the last part the author describes the history of three well known figures of different professional or political affiliation: Ing. Štefan Janšák, a high official active in several economic sectors, with the authority to affect economic development of Slovakia, the catholic priest Dr. Jozef Tiso, a leader of Hlinka´s Slovak People’s Party, and Dr. Jozef Cieker holding office in the Czechoslovak Foreign Department and serving as the ambassador of Slovakia in different European countries after 1939. Ultimately, the author brings two studies, one concerning the history of the city of Martin in 1918-1938, and the other dealing with the activities of the professional Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava and some unprofessional dramatic ensembles and their impact on the interwar cultural and social advancement of Slovakia.

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Vojnové škody a rekonštrukcia Slovenska 1944 - 1948. (Hospodárstvo, infraštruktúra, zdravotníctvo)
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Vojnové škody a rekonštrukcia Slovenska 1944 - 1948. (Hospodárstvo, infraštruktúra, zdravotníctvo)

Author(s): Ľudovít Hallon,Miroslav Sabol,Anna Falisová / Language(s): Slovak

Military operations during the Slovak National Uprising (SNU) and the front-line battles on the Slovak territory between the years 1944-1945 are relatively well researched by Czech and Slovak historiography. However, the impact of these events on the Slovak economy, infrastructure and the social sphere were only of marginal interest here. The same can be said about the subject of eliminating the war related damages after 1945. Three authors, Ľudovít Hallon, Miroslav Sabol and Anna Falisová (researchers of the Department of History of Sciences and Technology, Institute of History, Slovak Academy of Sciences) decided to pay a closer attention to these less frequented themes in their monograph. It is at a same time a first attempt and a pilot project for a future research leading towards a more comprehensive analysis of the mentioned themes. The monograph consists of three autonomous parts; one from each author. In the first one, Ľ. Hallon documents how the outcomes of military operations influenced the Slovak economy, especially the industry, financial sphere and the infrastructure. The main focus is on the period from June 1944 (first bombing of the Slovak industrial facilities), till April 1945 (end of war on the Slovak territory). In some cases, this time interval is stretched till the first months after the WWII. The analysis is based on the archive research in Germany and Slovakia, especially on the documents about aerial attacks, war damages during the SNU and the front-line military operations. Special attention is dedicated to the far-reaching financial losses related to the German occupation and plundering after the outbreak of the SNU. Ľ. Hallon analyzed also the forms of German control of Slovak economy and overall status of war damages. In the second part, M. Sabol deals with the reconstruction of the damaged economy, infrastructure and partly also tertiary sphere in Slovakia between the years 1945- 1948. Author focuses on the importance, role and types of domestic and foreign aid presented to the Slovak inhabitants and economy. The already existing knowledge about this theme is here significantly enriched by the archive research, analyze of statistics and contemporary newspaper articles. This section is describing the elimination of war damages in agriculture, restoration of specific industrial branches, reconstruction of demolished infrastructure, especially the railways, but also roads, bridges and water transport. M. Sabol writes about transferring the industrial facilities from Czech lands to Slovakia. The subchapters about mine clearing and problem of German reparations for the Czechoslovakia are based on yet unknown sources. This is also the case of information about the status of Slovakia in the process of delivering the UNRRA aid as well as the description of the help coming from the Soviet Union. The third part, written by Anna Falisová, deals with impact of war on the health and social situation of the population. This chapter has a „pioneering character“ as it is based exclusively on archive documents and other primary sources. Regarding the health situation, this text is focused on spread of epidemics after the end of war and efforts to stop them. It analyzes the overall health status of the population and establishment of the new „miraculous“ medicine, penicillin. This part of the book deals also with the health situation of children, with the help of UNRRA and other foreign organizations for the health service. Special attention is devoted to health aspects of war repatriations, impact of war events on the psychic state of the population and the methods used to reduce these effects.

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Z dejín demokratických a totalitných režimov na Slovensku a v Československu v 20. storočí. Historik Ivan Kamenec 70-ročný
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Z dejín demokratických a totalitných režimov na Slovensku a v Československu v 20. storočí. Historik Ivan Kamenec 70-ročný

Author(s): / Language(s): Slovak

The Institute of History of the Slovak Academy of Sciences honors with this collective monograph the 70th jubilee of the one of its outstanding colleagues and friends – PhDr. Ivan Kamenec, CSc. Although Mr. Kamenec studies and interprets the modern Slovak history of the 20th century in its complexity, his lifelong scientific interest belongs to the Slovak Republic during World War II, especially its political history and personalities. He is to be counted to the top rated Slovak historians in this field. But in the first place his name in the history of the Slovak historical science is connected with the pioneer role in researching the Holocaust in Slovakia. Before 1989 he had been the first to open this taboo theme and the years later his research results inspired the whole group of new historians and brought Dr. Kamenec the international respect among Holocaust specialists. The collective monograph From the History of the Democratic and Totalitarian Regime in the 20th Century Slovakia and Czechoslovakia deals with not yet fully researched areas of the history of Slovakia and the Slovaks and its international context and relations. The texts are aimed at some historical events in the period of the first, interwar Czechoslovak Republic, at the phenomena in the history of the Slovakia during WWII and at the development before and after communist takeover after the war. All the chapters are written by outstanding specialists in the given themes, coming from the Institute of History of SAS, from the other history institutions and universities of Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The book begins with the two texts dealing with the professional life and the scientific work of Ivan Kamenec. In the first one Herta Tkadlečková – the former university teacher of I. Kamenec – remembers in an essay like form “how has become the modest student a reputable historian”. Taking as an example the birth and its circumstances of the Kamenec’s books, she depicts the complicated lot of a historian dealing with the modern history. The second text written by Nina Paulovičová compares the crucial “Holocaust” book of Ivan Kamenec On the Trail of the Tragedy with some same topic books published in abroad. Showing various aspects of the author’s interpretation of the Jewish fate in war time Slovakia she prizes not only the scientific value of this monograph, but also its social and moral importance. The next part of the book already speaks about some aspects of the (Czecho-) Slovak history in the time between the two world wars. Milan Zemko analyzes the political system of the first Czechoslovak Republic from the point of view of the political parties acting in the National assembly. He shows the changing picture of their antagonisms and cooperation, being more and more based upon nationalism and resulting in the hard confrontation between “Czechoslovak” (Czech and Slovak) political parties and the political representative bodies of the national minorities – German and Hungarian. Ľubica Kázmerová has aimed her attention at the development of the Slovak educational system in the given period. Comparing the differences and common features of the Slovakia and Czech lands, she presents how at the beginning the disastrous educational situation in Slovakia positively changed in the first two decades of the existence of the Czechoslovak Republic. The third text of this part of the book written by Peter Švorc is a sound into the regional and local history of the small Spiš town – Spišská Belá. The author deals with the local political life represented by leftist and right wing political groupings and concentrates in the case of Jewish inhabitance on the interethnic relations. Wartime Slovak state, Jewish question and the Slovak uprising are the main subjects of the second part of the monograph. Eduard Nižňanský states that the anti-Semitic politics was characteristic not only for the wartime Slovak Republic (from March the 14th, 1939), but its basic features had developed already in the last phase of the Czecho-Slovakia’s existence – in the period of the Slovak autonomy. This statement author documents on the case of the Anti-Jewish pogrom in Piešťany in early March 1939. The term “Jew” and its place in the law system of the wartime Slovak state examines in her text Katarína Zavacká. Analyzing the corresponding legal acts, she shows the parallel between depriving the Jews of their civil rights and the decay of democratic system. On the contrary to the Jews, who were not acknowledged as a minority, in the Slovak Republic existed three officially declared national minorities – German, Hungarian and Ruthenian. At the problem of their legal status in the political system of the wartime Slovak Republic is aimed the text of Ondrej Podolec. From the point of view of international context the historians deal in the given period with the two aspects – first there are the international relations of the Slovak Republic, and second aspect are the activities of the Slovak Pro-Allied exile. The less known events in the official relations between Slovak republic and U.S.S.R. examines Dagmar Čierna-Lantayová. Based upon the archival research in Moscow the text shows the development of the diplomatic relations from their beginning to the time, when the Slovak army entered the war against Russia. The exile problem represents the writing of Vilém Prečan. It comments four here-published documents, which show the unknown facts and the chain of circumstances of the detention of Vladimír Clementis – the prominent Slovak communist – during his stay in France in 1939. About the French attitude to the Slovakia and Slovak question writes also Pavol Petruf. In the text he concentrates on the given problem at first till the defeat of the France in 1940 and then on the attitude of the Vichy and the de Gaulle’s Free France to the Slovak Republic and in the same time to the Slovak exile. The last block of this part of the book pays attention to the various, less known aspects of the Slovak National Uprising in 1944. It begins with the first research results on the anti-resistance propaganda in the uprising and on the uprising, including the German official media. The military campaigns of rising are not perceived here as an object of research, but as case of escalation of the social conflict, widely covered by printed media. The author – Marína Zavacká widely analyses and interprets the vocabulary of this propaganda. The print-media are the subject also of the text of Jan Rychlík. In this case the author in details documents, how the official newspapers in Protectorate reflected the course of the uprising and how they used it for their own propaganda. The closing text crosses the chronological line of this part. It looks at the uprising from the point of view of historical memory. Its author – Elena Mannová – using the social-historical and cultural-historical approach is searching for various interpretations of the rising and their reflection in the collective memory from 1945 to the end of the century. Mannová’s text leads the reader to the part of the monograph dealing with the post-war period before and after the communist takeover. In the first text Michal Barnovský gives the brief characteristics of the function, structure and the activities of the National Front in Slovakia in 1945- 1948. After analyzing them the author states that although the monopoly of power of the NF made the communist takeover in February 1948 easier, its existence had not been the necessary condition for it. The communist coup d’etat had been victorious because of using the material power and the Soviet pressure. The second text dealing with the given period is from Edita Ivaničková. She tries to document the foreign policy interests of the Slovaks in 1944-1948, shows their possibilities, limits and their outcomes. Being concentrated on the solution of the Slovak question within the post-war republic, the Slovak politicians paid less attention to the foreign policy and loosing their fight for democracy they also lost the opportunity to develop their foreign policy interests. Another text dealing with the international aspects has written Slavomír Michálek. He depicts the case – known in its time in the West as “the freedom flight” – when the three Czechoslovak citizens trying to escape the communist regime highjacked in 1953 the airplane and landed in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany. The following diplomatic incident between United States and Czechoslovakia was the only constructive solved matter in that period of the fully frozen bi-lateral relations. Being Michálek’s text based upon the archival research, the next one – by Jozef Leikert – is an interesting combination of Oral History and the study of the contemporary material. It shows one period of the life of the well-known Slovak writer and journalist Ladislav Mňačko, when he was as a young communist working in the daily paper Pravda and supporting the Stalinist regime in Czechoslovakia. The next text written by Vladimír Goněc concentrates on another personality, this time from the camp of the communist opponents. He analyses the activities and above all the ideas of the one of the leaders of the émigré organization – the Council of Free Czechoslovakia – Hubert Ripka. The reader may get acquainted with his opinion in the second half of the 50-ties not only on the development in the Central Europe, but on the global policy as well. With the text of Jan Pešek the book turns back to the inner development of Slovakia within the Czechoslovak state. The author describes one fragment in the history of the Slovak communist party with long reaching consequences – the changes in its leading positions in 1962-1964. It means the fall of the old functionaries connected with K. Gottwald and A. Novotný and the coming of a new guard of communist leaders (e.g. A. Dubček) not directly burdened by the unlawfulness of the past. The next text by Miroslav Londák follows up chronologically with the previous chapter. The author analyzes the Czechoslovak economic reform in the 60-ties and its break down after the invasion in August 1968. He states that the base and the scope of the reform plans had been incompatible with the given socialist system in Czechoslovakia and it undermined its fundaments. The new democratic Czechoslovakia and its break down is the theme examined by Jozef Žatkuliak. He goes through the discussions about the new relations between the Czechs and the Slovaks in a federal republic after 1989, follows the proceedings of various political groupings and their leaders up to the end of the Czechoslovakia and the birth of the independent Slovak state in 1993. The last part of this collective monograph deals with the themes of democracy, individual and collective ideological consciousness in the 20th century Slovakia. Dušan Kováč writes about democracy, political culture and the heritage of totalitarianism in the historical process. He states among others that in Central European countries is the experience with the life in democracy very limited. Czechoslovak republic in the inter-war period was only a single country with the real parliamentary democracy. Introduction of the general suffrage and the plural political party system was not without danger in Central Europe and in other post-communist countries. Functioning democracy needs a relative high level of political culture. Without this could democracy shrink to the electoral machinery connected with populism and with the growth of nationalism. Roman Holec returns back into the end of the 19th and the first half of 20th centuries and introduces the “forgotten Slovak leftist intellectual” – Hugo Matzner. He follows his life from his youth up to the death in 1948. Through Matzner’s activities in the social-democratic party and his leftist intellectual maturity the author indirectly shows the development in Slovakia from the last period of Austria-Hungary till the communist take over in 1948. Another portrait of the well-known Slovak personality Alexander Matuška – the best representative of the Slovak literary criticque and essay in the 20th century – closes the summarized monograph. Vlasta Jaksicsová in her text goes though the key moments of his life and writings, where he presents himself as an original and severe critic of the Slovak past and present and the commentator on the Slovak characteristic features. And she underlines, that Matuška is a favorite author also for Ivan Kamenec and that the writer and the historian have many common features.

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Za roľníka, pôdu a republiku. Slovenskí agrárnici v prvom polčase 1. ČSR
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Za roľníka, pôdu a republiku. Slovenskí agrárnici v prvom polčase 1. ČSR

Author(s): Matej Hanula / Language(s): Slovak

Agrarian political movement represents a significant chapter of the Slovak history in the first half of the 20th century. Its beginnings date back to the start of the 20thcentury. Despite several efforts to make it independent it remained part of an integrated Slovak political block before the World War I. It originated as a separate political party with the name National Republican Peasant Party only in 1919 under the new conditions of democratic Czechoslovakia. After unification with their Czech agrarian partners to the united Czechoslovak Republican Party of Peasants and Small Farmers it became the most influential centralist party in Slovakia since the parliamentary elections in 1925 and it kept this position until the end of the first Czechoslovak Republic. The goal of the agrarian party in Slovakia was to attract with its political program the most numerous part of the Slovak population that was employed in agriculture. The party tried to improve material conditions of the population of countryside, in which middle peasant estate absented. The main mean to achieve this goal became the land reform. Its enactment and later its administration became the main point of the party’s political agitation. During the first years of the Czechoslovak Republic the agrarian party in Slovakia was a separate political subject. Because of different opinions about the orientation of the party on peasantry and about the Slovak autonomy, the union with the nationalist wing failed and in 1921 the Slovak National Party separated form the agrarian party again. Slovak agrarians co-operated with their Czech agrarian partners already from the beginning of the republic and after the elections in 1920 they created common parliamentary club. The cooperation culminated with unification of Czech and Slovak agrarians to the united Czechoslovak party. Both sides enjoyed benefits of the unification. Czech agrarians extended their influence to agrarian Slovakia and thanks to it became the strongest party in Czechoslovakia and the Slovak wing of the new party could rely on support of the stronger partner in enforcing its requests on the statewide level. Despite of the fusion to the unified Czechoslovak party, Milan Hodža didn’t abandon his project of cooperation with Slovak fractions of statewide parties and Slovak political subjects. Position in the centre of the Czechoslovak party political spectrum enabled agrarians to seek allies on the left as well as on the right wing. They created not only the axis of the nationwide coalition cabinets, but also of the right-wing cabinets in the second half of the 20th century. Great credit for the creation of this partnership belongs to Milan Hodža who became the clear leader of the Slovak agrarians after 1922. He played a key role in a discussion and convinced Hlinka’s Slovak People’s party to join the government of the first Czechoslovak Republic in 1927, too. The work also tries to answer the question why the party which declared itself a defender of the interests of the largest group of the Slovak population didn’t manage to become the best supported political party in Slovakia. Religion still played a significant role during elections. Majority of Slovak Catholics voted for the clerical Hlinka’s Slovak People’s Party which tried to enforce the Slovak autonomy in Czechoslovakia. Agrarians had a significant support in regions with the high number of Lutheran population. Czechoslovak orientation and the alliance with Czech agrarians allowed their Slovak partners to obtain seats in the Czechoslovak governments. As a minister of agriculture in the years 1922 – 1926 Hodža enforced many important demands for the development of Slovak agriculture. The work consists of five chapters with different extent. The first chapter deals with basic ideas of agrarian political ideology. It contains a brief sketch about the formation of the Slovak agrarian political movement before 1918. The following chapter deals with the beginnings of the agrarian party in Slovakia after the establishment of Czechoslovakia, continues with the unsuccessful effort to create a strong nationwide political power and ends with the unification to the Czechoslovak agrarian party in 1922. The chapters 3 and 4 focus on activities of Slovak agrarians in the Czechoslovak agrarian party. The 3rd chapter concentrates on enlarging of the administrative structure of the party in Slovakia and on the office of the main secretariat in Bratislava with its boss František Seďa. It was able to maintain some level of autonomy also after the unification with the Czech partners. The 4th chapter deals with Hodža´s participation in creation of the first right-wing government of Czechoslovakia and his role in convincing Hlinka’s Slovak People’s Party to enter the cabinet and in passing a new regional administration law for Slovakia. Except those problems, the author analyses Hodža´s position on Czechoslovak political scene, in the Czechoslovak agrarian party and also the unsuccessful efforts of his Slovak party opponents to threaten his position in Slovakia. The last chapter concentrates on party’s affiliated political organizations and institutions in Slovakia. They played an important role in the party’s successes in the first Czechoslovak Republic. The work deals with the development of the party until 1929 which was one of principal milestones of the first Czechoslovak Republic. It is often called “the end of its golden era”. Just two days after the parliamentary elections in this year came the collapse at the New York stock market. It became the first evident demonstration of the great depression that influenced political and economic life in Czechoslovakia in the next years. Generation change among the leaders of the agrarian party and also in its Slovak wing started, too.

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Žena a právo. Právne a spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti
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Žena a právo. Právne a spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti

Author(s): / Language(s): Slovak,Czech

U dňoch 5. - 7. novembra 2002 sa v Kongresovom centre Slovenskej akadémie vied v Smoleniciach uskutočnila medzinárodná vedecká konferencia Žena a pravo - spoločenské postavenie žien v minulosti. Pllavnými organizátormi konferencie boli Historický ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied a sekcia pre rodové štúdie Slovenskej historickej spoločnosti pri SAV. Podujatie podporila Open Society Foundation - Nadácia otvorenej spoločnosti, ktorá poskytla grant zo svojho ženského programu. Významne prispeli aj Kultúrny inštitút Maďarskej republiky a Spoločnosť Pro História.

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Ženská emancipácia. Diskurz slovenského národného hnutia na prelome 19. a 20. storočia
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Ženská emancipácia. Diskurz slovenského národného hnutia na prelome 19. a 20. storočia

Author(s): Karol Hollý / Language(s): Slovak

Author analyzes the history of women’s emancipation in the discourse of Slovak national movement at the turn of the century. The basic assumption of the publication is that there was a direct relationship between history of women’s emancipation and history of nationalism. Karol Hollý’s observation of this phenomenon is based primarily on history of ideas, which were inevitable for the contemporary nationalist thinking. Main object of the monograph is the ideological concept of Slovak nationalists (Slovak national movement or Slovak women movement) at the turn of the century in the context of women’s emancipation idea. The aim of the book is to define, how the concepts of women and their role in society were constructed in the discourse of the Slovak nationalists. First chapter is dealing with the basic question of the education of women, analyzing both the institutional-legal point of view and the discourse of the Slovak nationalists. The chapter also includes an analysis of the education process of Mária Bellová, a woman with Slovak national identity, who, in the given circumstances, acquired an unusually high level of education. In the second chapter, the author explores the complicated genesis of the first Slovak journal for women (Dennica) and its reception in the circle of Slovak nationalists. Third chapter is devoted to the key question of the Czech and Slovak women movement relations in the context of conflicting national ideologies of independent Slovak nation and national unity of Czechs and Slovaks. Main focus of the fourth chapter is the so called Embroidering movement. The nationalist context of the embroidering is documenting the connection between Slovak women movement and Slovak national movement. Fifth chapter consists of case studies. It is divided into two parts, covering detailed analysis of the discourse in newspapers from 1913 about fundamental questions of women’s emancipation – women suffrage, professional realization of women in the public sphere, social welfare of the unmarried women, freedom to decide not to marry and so on. Themes analyzed in the individual chapters confirm the initial hypothesis, that the question of women’s emancipation was subordinated to the nationalist objectives. It was because of nationalism that women question acquired its prominent role in the national community. Women became responsible for creating the secure background for the men involved in the national movement. The “living space” of women was, therefore, limited to the household, the role of wives and, first of all, mothers, raising and preparing the next generation of nationalists for their future “national tasks”. This function was accepted also in the Slovak women’s movement. According to the author, despite some conflicts between ideas of Slovak national and Slovak women’s movement (observable in the genesis of Dennica), they were, in fact, not in opposition. One of the reasons was the political orientation of Živena (association of Slovak women) and its representatives on the so called Martin centre of Slovak National Party. In comparison with the earlier periods, in the era before WWI, the women question became an increasingly broader concept in the framework of national discourse. The restricted concept of a woman in a household was supplemented with an image of woman active in the public sphere as a valued member of the national community. During this time, the so called woman question was clearly influencing the differentiation among the Slovak nationalists. However, there was a general consensus regarding positive attitude towards the women suffrage. This has to be understood in the context of Slovak nationalism in Kingdom of Hungary – women should have added to the number of the nationally oriented voters. The most fundamental conclusion of the publication is that for the whole analyzed period the nationalism had a priority over feminism; the women question was always secondary to the Slovak question.

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