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This paper explores the relationship between migration, entrepreneurship, and foreign direct investments by focusing on entrepreneurial activities of post-Soviet (im)migrants in Hungary in periods between 1991 and 2016. Post-Soviet migrants are in focus because between 1956 and 1989 the Soviet Union coercively kept Hungary in the Socialist bloc. Based on surveys and in-depth interviews, this paper reveals that there are considerable differences in patterns of entrepreneurship among post-Soviet immigrant entrepreneurs depending mostly on time of their arrival to Hungary. Similarly, motives for entrepreneurship among the first-wave migrants combine negative factors in the former Soviet Union with positive factors encountered in Hungary, while factors in Hungary recognized as positive by most post-Soviets prevail in motives for later waves of post-Soviet migration and entrepreneurship in Hungary. The paper also demonstrates that many relatively small investments have been conducted since 2000 by citizens of post-Soviet countries to Hungary. Some of them are transforming into an entrepreneurial activity, serving also as a basis for immigration to Hungary.
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A short introduction to the special issue of the Theoretical Practice Journal.
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Undertaking cooperation (and appearing competition resulting from this cooperation) in the mutual economic relations between the Polish state, revived in November 1918, and the Nordic countries was possible after recognition de iure of Poland as a state by those countries and after signing economic agreements. The first attempts to establish economic cooperation took place even before the Polish state came into being. But a real economic cooperation between Poland and the Nordic countries did not flourish before the state’s frontiers had been finally fixed, the economic and navigational agreements had been signed, the economic relations had been stabilised, especially the financial ones, and the whole Polish economy had got started. In the field of economy Poland might cooperate (and compete) with the Nordic countries exporting there such goods as: coal, other fuels, smelting products, wood, textile products, and agricultural produce. On the other hand, the Scandinavian countries exported to Poland the following goods: edible fats, lubricants, fish and fish preserves, fertilisers, machines and technical equipment. The two regions cooperated also in the sphere of capital investments; the Nordic countries invested in the following Polish industries: electro-technical, wood, textile, metal, food, and match. The investments of the Swedish concern of Ivar Kreuger in Poland had a negative impact on the Polish match industry. A positive example of the cooperation between Poland and Scandinavia may be the activity of the Danish Company Højgaard & Schultz AS, which in the commercial port of Gdynia built all the breakwaters and quays, and prepared the technical documentation of many facilities. In addition the Company carried out some other works within and outside the port of Gdynia, among other things in the fishing port in Hel, Wielka Wieś (Władysławowo), and hydrotechnical facilities in Oksywie and the energetic company in Czarna Woda. Yet, a rise in the turnover in the ports of the Polish customs space caused some reactions on part of the Scandinavian ports in the sphere of freight, transit and passenger traffic. The shipbuilding industry was also an area of cooperation between Poland and Scandinavia. Poland purchased merchant ships, fishing vessels and engines in the Scandinavian shipyards and sold machines and equipment on the Nordic markets; in addition, Poland carried out repair works in its own shipyards for Nordic shipowners. Throughout this period an exchanges of students and engineers took place, especially with the Danish shipyards. Poland and Scandinavian countries cooperated also in the sphere of sea transport; mixed shipowner companies were created, some sea routes and some destination ports were operated by mixed companies. At the same time, it was visible that the competition between Polish and Nordic shipowners was growing in the passenger and freight traffic. An important field of cooperation (and competition) – especially with Denmark, which dated back to 1903 – was agriculture. Polish agricultural organisations and owners of big farms benefited from the achievements of Danish agriculture and were in constant contact with Danish centres of agricultural production, which represented a very high level. Poland sent to Denmark pupils and students of agricultural schools and agricultural specialists. Yet, the two countries competed on other markets, e.g. on the English market of bacon. Cooperation and competition in the relations between Poland and the Scandinavian countries were present also in the commercial fishing sector. The use of the Scandinavian, mainly Danish, fishing vessels, fishing equipment and instructors significantly contributed to the development of the Polish fishing sector within the Baltic Sea, Kattegat, Skagerrak and the North Sea. It is worth mentioning here the divergence and concurrence of opinions of the Polish and Scandinavian delegates revealed at the meetings of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea headquartered in Copenhagen (ICES); Poland joined the ICES in 1922.
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For the Republic of Chechoslovakia, a state without access to the sea, a natural way to get to the Baltic Sea was the Oder and Szczecin (Stettin). Between the two World Wars in the 20th century the country on the Wlatava (German: Moldau), in spite of receiving its own duty-free zone in the Szczecin port and in spite of its own river barges according to the treaty of Versailles, did not take the full advantage of the Oder route. A series of events caused that Prague directed its trade and transit expansion towards the ports of the North Sea, especially Hamburg, and the Mediterranean Sea. The second world war brought about some political and economic changes in the situation of Poland and Checkoslovakia. As a result of the territorial changes a part of the German territories, including most of the course of the Oder, became Polish. Any potential border conflict between the two countries was prevented by signing the treaty of friendship and mutual assistance on March 10th, 1947, and on July 4th of the same year – a convention of economic cooperation. An important part of the latter was the chapter concerning the transit arrangements, thanks to which Czechoslovakia was conceded a duty-free zone in the Szczecin port and a privileged position in the navigation on the Oder; the convention entitled the Czechoslovakian merchant shipping to use the Polish seaports on the same conditions the Polish ships had. A consequence of the transit arrangements was an agreement between Czechoslovakia and Poland concerning the lease of a part of the Szczecin port concluded on July 15th, 1949. By virtue of that agreement Czechoslovakia received a wharf 300 metres long and 100 metres wide for its own use. May 12th, 1948 saw the creation of the Czechoslovakian Oder Navigation (Company) to run the navigation on the Oder River by the Czechoslovakian barges; its headquarters were in Wrocław with a branch in Szczecin. On the other hand, at the end of the 1940s the Czechoslovakian freight forwarding passing through the Polish ports was monopolised by the PLC ‘Spedrapid’ in Gdynia (with branches in Gdańsk and Szczecin); its capital and management were partly Polish and partly Czechoslovakian. After a few years of using its own wharf in the Szczecin port and operating the shipping company on the Oder (both of which turned out to be extremely unprofitable) Czechoslovakia gave them up. A new agreement between Poland and Czechoslovakia was concluded on January 13th, 1956; it put an end to the foreign area in the port of Szczecin and to the shipping company on the Oder. Surprisingly, the liquidation of the two agencies did not result in a decrease of transit turnover but just the reverse: caused its increase. In the subsequent decades Szczecin played an important role in the Czechoslovakian foreign trade. In 1958 Szczecin became the biggest transit port for our southern neighbour overtaking Hamburg. The Szczecin shipowner – the Polish Steamship Company – was one of the leading carriers in the Czechoslovakian exports and imports. Czechoslovakia purchased products of the Polish shipyards, whence a part of its ships came. A significant part of the officers of the Czechoslovakian Shipping Company (Československá námořní plavba) had been prepared by the Maritime Academy in Szczecin. Yet, the attempts to cooperate more closely undertaken in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s failed.
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The following study presents the regulation policy of prices in the agricultural sector of Bessarabian economy in 1906-1914, during the years before the First World War. The main purpose of this presentation is showing the essence of Tsarist administration’s measures in this area. The objectives of the study are as following: presenting price dynamics in the agrarian sector, determining the local administration's reaction to these changes and the impact of the actions undertaken. This topic remains topical because it can serve as a remarkable example for the future price policy in the Republic of Moldova. The main bibliographic sources of the data presented can be found in the Bessarabian Zemstva Uprava Fund of 1906-1914, kept in the National Archive of the Republic of Moldova.
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The article aims at identifying the transformations in trade influenced by the main macroeconomic forces of trade companies in European countries in the 21st century. The author surveys the specialist literature dealing with marketing, trade and the analysis of the chosen statistical data (among others the Central Statistical Office, GUS) concerning the domestic trade. On the basis of the research carried out, it has been established that the development of new forms (units) of retail (e.g. convenience shops, e-commerce) influenced by the transformations in the macroeconomic environment of companies has been observed. At the same time, forms of trade of the hybrid character (e.g. discount convenience shops) have appeared and old well-known forms of trade (department stores, supermarkets, discount shops) have been strengthened. The knowledge about the issues presented in the article has practical implications and can be helpful for managers of trade companies
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Before 1944 in Bulgaria, despite the intervention of political regimes, there wererich traditions of a developed civil society. Nearly 40 different organizations of theBulgarian refugees are among them.
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The article examines the reform agenda in Macedonia in October 1903 in the gendarmerie, judiciary and tax systems. Implementation of reforms is followed by reports of Romanian consuls Lazar Duma and Dimitrie Gika to the Ambassador in Constantinople and the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Bucharest.
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