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Between Moravia and Prussia there was an important medieval route passing through the economic and political centres (Olomouc, Opava, Raciborz, Krakow and Torun). A very important medieval route existed between Moravia and Prussia, connecting the economic and political centres (Olomouc, Opava, Raciborz, Krakow and Torun). Situation on this road made it possible to research the continuous material and ideological transfer, the existence of which is evident from the archaeological finds in Opava region. We have compiled three thematic groups of artefacts which include utility ceramics, numismatic material, and sacral artefacts used by pilgrims. Within the identified system, various groups of travellers including merchants, artisans, diplomats and pilgrims can be detected.
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The transformations of the North Atlantic Alliance in the wake of the 9/11 attacks and its mission in Afghanistan have proceeded hand in hand with the redefining of security interests in individual member states. Poland and Germany have also been affected by a polarization of views, particularly on the nature, place and role of NATO in today's world. The countries’ geopolitics and their varying visions of European security have significantly affected their positions.
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The article outlines the role of the EU in resolving the armed conflict in the western Sudanese province of Darfur, and explains the important role played by the EU in its engaged in peacekeeping and that guided his condition, as well as how it actions and decisions were received by the Darfurians and the government in Khartoum. Unfortunately, the nature and progress of the conflict, and above all, the great ignorance of the region and the population, makes all attempts to resolve the conflict are ineffective. Through these years, the EU has introduced a number of resolutions, declarations and sanctions. All this was not only to save the life of hundreds of thousands of civilians, but also opposition to the regime and impact on its interests. Unfortunately, there was no general coordination of EU the actions, not only in Darfur, but also in the whole of Sudan. That resulting chaos in actions related to the quality of cooperation between the EU bodies. There was no close co-operation aimed at planning of aid from the United Nations, also because it was a kind of rivalry between EU and UN organizations who want to be seen as a major mediator in peacekeeping.
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The involvement of Poland in the activities of the international community for strengthening peace, security and stability in conflict-prone states and regions was one of significant elements of the foreign policy pursued after 1989. It assumed various forms, from diplomatic initiatives and activities, to the direct participation in international peacekeeping operations and stabilisation missions. The involvement of Poland in the activities of the international community for strengthening peace, security and stability in conflict-prone states and regions was one of significant elements of the foreign policy pursued after 1989. It assumed various forms, from diplomatic initiatives and activities, to the direct participation in international peacekeeping operations and stabilisation missions.
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The study tackles the issue of applying respective theories of European integration to explain the processes occurring in the EU, and in particular, in the debt-wrecked eurozone. In the author's view, the eurozone crisis revived the dispute over the shape of EU. On one hand, it is the supranational neofunctionalism and on the other, state-centric intergovernmentalism views clashing with one another. The author believes that the key theory that successfully explains the member states' behavior in face of eurozone crisis is the intergovernmentalism theory. It assumes the primacy of nation-state and its interests in the process of European integration. This is particularly apparent in the time of crisis when supranational mechanisms typical of neofunctionalist theory serve solely the purpose of legitimizing national interests of the economically strongest EU members.
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This paper presents some remarks on the situation of Poland in NATO. The problem of ‘predictability’ is analysed on the basis of a simple scheme (system, its environment, their interactions). The geopolitical analysis of this dynamic model leads to the conclusion that the future cannot be described as highly predictable, although some long-term scenarios seem to be relatively plausible and may be used in the construction of more realistic global and national/regional strategies. The results of this analysis suggest global cooperation and regional integration.
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No matter what the reasons are for providing development aid, the “how and where” of the countries doing it influences their image in international relations and testifies to the intelligent power of a country. Helping a country such as Tajikistan is difficult, and not only because of its geographic location or high level of poverty. It is hard to make some changes there (especially in the field of democracy) when a donor country has to face the despotic presidency of Rachmon and the high level of support for Putin's policies. Since 2004 Poland has been providing aid to this country (mainly with the participation of Polish NGOs), regardless of the fact as to whether it was on the list of priority countries or not. What are the main areas of Polish aid there? And what does Poland want and expect to achieve by helping the Tajiks? In this research and analysis the author looks for answers to these two questions.
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In recent years the economic and political situation in the Republic of Bulgaria has been dynamic and difficult for the population, the public administration, the business and the political class.
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The purpose of the study is to determine the capabilities of the government's macroeconomic policy to achieve equilibrium domestically and internationally. The object of study is macroeconomic policy, aimed at establishing the national economy in a state of internal and external equilibrium. The subject of study of this study includes the instruments for achieving equilibrium from the position of fiscal, monetary and exchange rate policy. To achieve the above goal, a model is presented to explain the mechanism for forming internal and external equilibrium through the instruments of the three types of economic policy. This is the Swan Diagram.
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The 33rd issue of Fordulat deals with the recent era of China's growing international role, which has directly affected the post-regime Hungarian accumulation regimes, from a global and historical perspective. The organic antecedents of the present processes are China's socialist industrialisation attempts, its political and economic reforms in response to the internal contradictions of the system, and their linkage to the transformation of global capitalist production at the end of the 20th century, which was analysed by the Chuang collective in the previous issue of Fordulat, No. 32. This transformation sought to counteract the symptoms of the crisis of the post-World War II global economic boom that emerged in the 1970s by shifting Western production capacity to East Asian and later specifically Chinese industrial zones.
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The scientific work contains matter in the field of: security management of the beneficiaries of funds from the European structural and investment funds; the organization of the protection of companies and specialized state bodies against misuse of European funds; optimization of the activity of the structures to ensure the legal spending of grant aid under operational programs and elements of the security of public and corporate information systems to measure the risk of misuse of EU funds. Acts of the primary and secondary law of the EU and the main national normative acts in the field of European funds and their spending, the types of European funds and operational programs, functions and powers of the specialized bodies for the administration of irregularities with European funds and the imposition of financial corrections are described and explained, countering fraud-related crimes.
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The study examines the evolution of cyber security, cybercrime and the legal framework that governs these areas, focusing on the historical development of technology and threats in cyberspace. Beginning with the early years of mainframe systems and the ARPANET, through the development of TCP/IP protocols and the WWW, the study traces the evolution of the technologies that shape modern digital infrastructure. The initial cybercrimes and their transition to more sophisticated attacks such as DDoS, ransomware and social engineering are also examined. Particular attention is paid to major cyber incidents, such as Stuxnet and SolarWinds, as well as state-sponsored attacks on critical infrastructure. The study includes an analysis of international and European legal regulations, such as the Budapest Convention and the NIS and NIS2 directives, which establish a framework for protection against cyber threats. Based on current trends and case studies, future challenges and the need to improve cyber defence mechanisms are discussed.
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African American churches are famous for their political involve-ment and advocacy efforts on behalf of their own ethnic group. However, while some of them have been heavily involved in various forms of political activity, others have avoided it, focusing mainly on matters of the spirit. In this article, I will present the origins and various forms of Black churches’ political engagement, but foremost I will analyze the debate concerning the mecha-nisms of their political mobilization, trying to answer the question regarding the key factors, which according to researchers, influence churches’ activism. Different research perspectives will be considered, and special attention will be paid to the comprehensive model by Eric L. McDaniel.
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Niniejsze opracowanie porusza problematykę związku zachodzącego między tożsamością narodową a religią oraz zdolnością budowania przez społeczeństwo opozycji wobec systemów komunistycznych. Podjęta w pracy analiza dotyczy narodu polskiego czasu Polskiej Rzeczpospolitej Ludowej i niemieckiego okresu Niemieckiej Republiki Demokratycznej jako dwóch odmiennych przykładów postaw społecznych.Analiza dowodzi, że Polacy i Niemcy w sytuacji historycznie trudnej, jaką było wprowadzenie systemu komunistycznego, wykazali tendencję do konsolidacji tożsamości narodowej wokół dwóch odmiennych koncepcji: naturalistyczno-kulturalistycznej i konstruktywistycznej. Pierwsza polegała na silnym odwołaniu się Polaków do etnosu, wraz z całym jego wymiarem duchowości i religijności, jako elementu scalającego społeczeństwo, a Niemców do demosu, rozumianego jako podporządkowanie się prawu i władzy stanowiących gwarancję porządku publicznego.Ten zróżnicowanie skonstruowany rdzeń tożsamości stał się kluczowy w budowaniu postaw antykomunistycznych w obu społeczeństwach. U Polaków skutkował sprzeciwem i silną strukturą opozycyjną, u Niemców skłonnością do akceptacji i legitymizacji działań władz komunistycznych. Zjawiska te, szczególnie zauważalne u przywódców Kościoła katolickiego w Polsce i Kościoła ewangelickiego w Niemczech (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland), dodatkowo wzmacniała zdywersyfikowana spójność religijna – silna u Polaków i słaba u Niemców.
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Based upon ethnographic fieldwork conducted amongst families of Bulgarian Roma returnees and refugees from the Middle East in Bulgaria, this paper discusses the problems of adaptation, which children face in elementary and secondary schools. Using a dialogical approach as the main strategy of fieldwork, I interviewed Roma returnee parents and children from different settlements, on the one hand, directors, homeroom teachers, and school staff, on the other, as well as experts in education. I conducted research amongst refugee families from Afghanistan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran in the southern town of Harmanli, where a refugee camp was set up in 2013. I am specifically interested in the children’s enrollment for the school years 2017 – 2018 and 2018 – 2019 when, for the first time, refugee pupils are enrolled in larger numbers in public schools, as a result of the introduction of Ordinance No. 3 of 2017. On the basis of the fieldwork material and reviewed documents, I state that the approaches to returnee and refugee students can be called ‘mainstream’ and ‘specific’ approaches. Under the mainstream approach, the pupils are categorised as ‘children of Bulgarian citizens living abroad’ and none of them are specifically labeled as ‘Roma’. The attitude towards them is similar to that of children of other Bulgarian return migrants. A special (targeting) approach is adopted for refugee children, who are included in the same group of ‘vulnerable’ students along with Roma pupils, assuming that both do not have a good command of the Bulgarian language and are at risk for unsuccessful adaptation at school.
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Cultural heritage is a factor in fostering social and economic development and ensuring a sustainable urban environment, supporting the Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda. Its sustainable management leads to preservation of the community’s identity and memory as well as the historic urban environment, which leads to reciprocal benefits for heritage and society. The article examines the possibilities for sustaining the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage properties though the implementation of several key management tools as Management Plans and Management Systems, focusing mainly on Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA). It provides a comprehensive overview of the legislative provision and implementation of these tools at the national level. The research methodology involves a mixed-methods approach, combining a review of the legal framework, secondary data analysis and qualitative data from case studies in Bulgaria. This methodology allows for a comprehensive analysis of the effectiveness and limitations of current heritage assessment tools in Bulgaria. The paper concludes that HIA is a vital component of sustainable cultural heritage management. By systematically assessing the potential impacts on heritage values, it provides a proactive approach to preservation of OUV of World Heritage sites. However, its effectiveness is contingent on its integration into State Parties’ policy frameworks and legal systems. Future research should focus on overcoming these challenges to ensure the continued relevance of the assessment and its alignment with broader sustainable development goals.
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This study aims to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the history of Romanian librarianship, with a particular focus on the evolution of libraries in higher theological education. By analyzing archival documents identified within the Faculty of Theology of the University of Bucharest, the research highlights relevant aspects concerning a library whose historical development reflects the transformations of the academic institution to which it belongs. The study focuses on the period 1948-1984, within the context of the communist regime, and emphasizes significant historical and functional aspects. In particular, the processes of reorganization and inventorying of the library between 1980 and 1984 are analyzed, along with the conclusions derived from these efforts. The library’s ability to sustain its activity under the communist regime, its status as a specialized library that applied principles of librarianship in its organization and functioning, as well as the size and quality of its documentary collection, attest to the fact that it became one of the most prestigious specialized libraries in the field of theology.
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Despite the invaluable role of the world ocean in many aspects of human existence, namely environmental, economic, cultural, social, and scientific, the pollution of the high seas remains an on-going concern. The soft law instruments and practices such as education and prevention of pollution from dumping of plastic waste are ineffective to tackle the problems of the world ocean in a comprehensive manner. For that reason, the international legal instruments in environmental law and the law of the sea, are a crucial tool for offering and effective solution to the problem of polluting the world ocean. In that regard, the international conventions in force are the most important instruments which can produce the necessary legal effects. The transnational nature of the pollution of the world ocean calls for the necessity to develop a respective international framework of protection. The new Global Treaty on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of High Seas Biodiversity adopted in 2023 (‘The High Seas Treaty’) has developed such, but the question with efficiency is still pending since it is not yet in force. Together with the Law of the Sea Convention, those are the two crucial international legal instruments that will offer protection of the important marine areas beyond national jurisdiction. While the Law of the Sea Convention tackles main issues of the sustainable use of non-living resources in the high seas, the High Seas Treaty further develops the protection over living resources of the areas beyond national jurisdiction and protects the marine ecosystems from diminishing biodiversity as a result from pollution. However, the main problem with the new treaty is its ratification by at least 60 countries so that it can come into force and provide the so urgently needed protection of the world ocean from pollution.
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This paper analyzes the ethos in two distinct speeches by the renowned orator Nicolae Iorga. The first speech, titled “Discurs la proiectul de lege pentru completarea unor dispoziții la legea învățământului universitar” and the second, “Despre conflictul cu prof. univ. C.C. Giurescu”, serve as the corpus for this study. The research aims to observe how ethos is constructed in these discourses and how Iorga capitalizes on his multiple identities to persuade his audience. By applying theoretical concepts related to ethos, the study compares the ways in which authority is built in both texts, highlighting their similarities and differences. Through a pragmatic and comparative approach, the study demonstrates how Iorga employs rhetorical and linguistic strategies to shape his self-image as an authoritative figure. The analysis reveals that his ethos construction varies depending on the nature of the discourse—legislative versus polemical—and the argumentative stakes of each speech. In both cases, Iorga’s ability to influence his audience is rooted in his intellectual prestige, political status, and strategic use of identity positioning.
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