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Analyzing Data from Memory Tasks – Comparison of ANOVA, Logistic Regression and Mixed Logit Model

Author(s): Milica Popović Stijačić,Ljiljana Mihić,Dušica Filipović Đurđević / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2018

We compared three statistical analyses over binary outcomes. As applying ANOVA over proportions violates at least two classical assumptions of linear models, two alternatives are described: the binary logistic regression and the mixed logit model. Firstly, we compared the effects obtained by the three methods over the same data from a previous memory research. All three methods gave similar results: the effects of the tasks and the number of sensory modalities were observed, but not their interaction. Secondly, by using the bootstrap estimates of the parameters, the efficacy of each method was explored. As predicted, the bootstrap parameter estimates of the ANOVA had large bias and standard errors, and consequently wide confidence intervals. On the other hand, the bootstrap parameter estimates of the binary logistic regression and the mixed logit models were similar – both had low bias and standard errors and narrow confidence intervals.

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ASSESSMENT OF FAMILY ENVIRONMENT AND OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENERATIONS – DATA FROM AN INVESTIGATION IN SUCEAVA COUNTY

Author(s): Elena Bujorean / Language(s): English / Issue: 11/2019

Our work is based on a common sense observation of the relational difficulties betweenparents and teenagers, trying to place emphasis on their perspective on the familyenvironment. The psycho-social investigation followed the analysis of student opinionregarding the quality of the family environment as a whole, as well as on the following levels:the frequency and quality of communication, manifestation of affection, mutual gratificationand encouragement, giving the right to an opinion and the exercising of autonomy. A deeperknowledge of the problems which could influence adolescent behaviour could serve as astarting point for practical attempts at educational counselling.

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BULLYING in schools - Activities through which teachers can prevent Bullying at school

Author(s): Ana-Maria Ţebrean,Andreea Ţebrean (Sabie) / Language(s): English / Issue: 9/2018

In this paper entitled BULLYING in schools - Activities through which teachers can prevent Bullying at school, we propose to present a worrying reality of our day by proposing some preventive ways that could come in support of a worrying phenomenon, which has increased in size in schools in Romania. We consider that the teaching staff also plays an important role in trying to stop this phenomenon, by implementing some active-participatory activities in the classroom, activities that we intend to highlight in this paper.

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Comparison of risk and protective factors associated with smartphone addiction and Internet addiction

Author(s): Sam-Wook Choi,Dai-Jin Kim,Jung-Seok Choi,Heejune Ahn,Eun-Jeung Choi,Won-Young Song,Seohee Kim,Hyunchul Youn / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2015

Smartphone addiction is a recent concern that has resulted from the dramatic increase in worldwide smartphone use. This study assessed the risk and protective factors associated with smartphone addiction in college students and compared these factors to those linked to Internet addiction. Methods: College students (N = 448) in South Korea completed the Smartphone Addiction Scale, the Young’s Internet Addiction Test, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, the Beck Depression Inventory I, the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (Trait Version), the Character Strengths Test, and the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale. The data were analyzed using multiple linear regression analyses. Results: The risk factors for smartphone addiction were female gender, Internet use, alcohol use, and anxiety, while the protective factors were depression and temperance. In contrast, the risk factors for Internet addiction were male gender, smartphone use, anxiety, and wisdom/knowledge, while the protective factor was courage. Discussion: These differences may result from unique features of smartphones, such as high availability and primary use as a tool for interpersonal relationships. Conclusions: Our findings will aid clinicians in distinguishing between predictive factors for smartphone and Internet addiction and can consequently be utilized in the prevention and treatment of smartphone addiction.

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CONNECTION BETWEEN PERSONAL PERFECTIONISM AND EFFICIENCY OF STUDENTS’ LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Author(s): Anastasiia Knysh,Oleksandr Romanovskyi,Nina Pidbutska,Iryna Shtuchenko / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2020

Aim. The primary objective of this study was to analyze the connection between students’ learning efficiency and different indicators of personal perfectionism. The secondary objective was to study the characteristics of students’ learning effectiveness depending on the level of perfectionism. Methods. The participants of the study were 110 students studying at the National Technical University “Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute”. The level of personal perfectionism was measured with use of “Perfectionism” questionnaire by N.H. Haranian and A.B. Kholmohorova. The level of learning activities efficiency was measured due to expert evaluation with participation of 26 lecturers-experts. Descriptive statistics were used to report means and standard deviations of perfectionism scales and learning efficiency levels. T-test was used for finding differences in level of personal perfectionism among students with different level of learning efficiency. Pearson correlation coefficient was used for establishing correlations between level of learning efficiency and different scales of personal perfectionism. Results. The level of learning efficiency of students depends on the pace of learning, the quality of learning, the ability to generalize and synthesize new information. Positive statistically significant correlations were found between perfectionism and student learning efficiency. Conclusions. The study identified that the most vulnerable to manifestations of perfectionism is a group of students who demonstrate the highest achievement in learning. Due to the excessive expectations of others (real or fictional), they set unrealistic goals, do not feel satisfied with their achievements, do not adequately assess their capabilities.

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CZY DORASTANIE MUSI BYĆ TRUDNE?

Author(s): Lucyna Bakiera / Language(s): Polish / Publication Year: 2010

Niewątpliwymi atutami książki są z jednej strony rzetelna informacja o zmianach zachodzących w życiu młodych ludzi – podana w sposób logiczny i uporządkowany, z drugiej zaś – spojrzenie poradnikowe: jak dorośli mogą na te zmiany reagować i które reakcje pomagają, a które przeszkadzają w rozwoju i układaniu wzajemnych relacji. Autorka pokazuje trudności, ale przedstawia je jako normalne i rozwojowe, wyjaśnia, obala mity. Pisze w sposób wyważony, nie posługuje się stereotypami, nie straszy, lecz uspokaja, buduje zrozumienie, co nadaje całości konstruktywny, pozytywny wydźwięk. Praca łączy w sobie wysokie walory merytoryczne dobrej książki naukowej z przystępnością formy i lekkością pióra książki popularnej. Co więcej, zawiera jasne i cenne wskazówki dotyczące postępowania. To połączenie wiedzy, mądrości i dobrego stylu czyni z niej pozycję ze wszech miar wartą polecenia. /// Z recenzji prof. dr. hab. Piotra K. Olesia

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Czy neurotycy boją się skakać? Osobowościowe predyktory uprawiania sportu

Author(s): Jacek Skorupski-Cymbaluk / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 8/2018

Teza. Celem artykułu jest zebranie i omówienie wiedzy z zakresu psychologii osobowości w sporcie oraz propozycja nowego wykorzystania dotychczasowych osiągnięć nauki w praktycznym treningu sportowym. Autor powołuje się na badania z zakresu osobowości, nawiązując szczególnie do teorii cech osobowości, postulując, że pomiędzy osobami, które uprawiają sport amatorsko i profesjonalnie, istnieją większe niż przeciętne, różnice indywidualne w natężeniu cech osobowości.Omówione koncepcje. Autor odwołał się do modeli osobowości PEN Eysencka, NEOAC Costy i McCrae, 16FP Cattella, koncepcji biologicznej Greya oraz do artykułów opisujących badania relacji osobowości z predyspozycjami i osiągnięciami sportowymi. Przedstawiono argumenty przemawiające za znaczeniem natężenia cech osobowości, takich jak neurotyczność czy ekstrawersja, w doborze metod treningowych (dobór rodzaju bodźców wzmacniających lub ćwiczeń).Wnioski. Współczesna literatura z zakresu psychologii sportu czerpie niewystarczająco z wiedzy z pozostałych gałęzi tej nauki, takich jak psychologia osobowości. Brakuje badań, które pozwoliłby skontrolować wpływ cech osobowości na sposób uprawiania sportu, szczególnie przez sportowców amatorskich.Ze względu na specyficzną konfigurację cech osobowości ludzie w specyficzny sposób reagują na bodźce: neurotycy silnie reagują na zagrożenie karą i ich zachowanie skupia się na unikaniu jej, podczas gdy ekstrawertycy kierują się potrzebą osiągnięć i nagród. Neurotycy charakteryzują się podwyższonym poziom lęku oraz mniejsza tolerancją bólu. Autor postuluje wykorzystanie tej wiedzy w praktyce trenerów sportu.

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DEPRESSION, ANXIETY AND SELF-ESTEEM AMONG INFERTILE WOMEN: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Author(s): Vanesa Negoiță,Adriana Băban / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2020

This paper aims to analyze the current literature on the impact of infertility on women’s psychological health through systematic methods. A systematic review of the literature for the research of the psychological effects on infertile women was performed. Depression, anxiety and self-esteem were analyzed in the context of women with reproductive problems. Our results indicate that infertile women had higher levels of anxiety and depression, but also a lower self-esteem, compared to women without fertility problems. Almost half of the infertile women, presented in the literature included in this study, reported the presence of psychological problems. The risk factors identified as having important influences on the experience of infertility were age, level of education, employment, duration of infertility, type of infertility, known or unknown cause of infertility, intentionality, perceived social support and treatment for infertility. Of course, these experiences differ from woman to woman, but most of the times, the lifestyle and physical and mental health of infertile women are negatively affected.

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Distinguishing between gaming and gambling activities in addiction research

Author(s): Daniel L. King,Sally M. Gainsbury,Paul H. Delfabbro,Nerilee Hing,Brett Abarbanel / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2015

Gambling and gaming activities have become increasingly recognised as sharing many common features at a structural and aesthetic level. Both have also been implicated as contributing to harm through excessive involvement. Despite this, relatively little attention has been given to the fundamental characteristics that differentiate these two classes of activity, especially in situations where the boundaries between them may be particularly hard to distinguish. This is evident, for example, in digital games that incorporate free and paid virtual currencies or items, as well as the capacity for wagering. Such overlaps create problems for regulatory classifications, screening, diagnosis and treatment. Is the problem related to the gambling or gaming content? Methods: In this paper, we review the principal sources of overlap between the activity classes in terms of several dimensions: interactivity, monetisation, betting and wagering, types of outcomes, structural fidelity, context and centrality of content, and advertising. Results: We argue that gaming is principally defined by its interactivity, skill-based play, and contextual indicators of progression and success. In contrast, gambling is defined by betting and wagering mechanics, predominantly chance-determined outcomes, and monetisation features that involve risk and payout to the player. A checklist measure is provided, with practical examples, to examine activities according to features of design and function, which may inform guidelines for policy makers, researchers and treatment providers. Discussion and conclusions: We suggest that, in some instances, using category-based nomenclature (e.g., “gambling-like game”) may be too vague or cumbersome to adequately organise our understanding of new gaming/gambling hybrid activities.

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DSM-5 criteria for gambling disorder: Underlying structure and applicability to specific groups of gamblers

Author(s): Pawel Sleczka,Barbara Braun,Daniela Piontek,Gerhard Bühringer,Ludwig Kraus / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2015

DSM-5 provides nine diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder. All criteria have a pre-assumed equal diagnostic impact and are applied to all individuals and groups in an equal manner. The aims of the study are to analyse the structure underlying the diagnosis and to assess whether DSM-5 is equally applicable to different groups of gamblers. Methods: Data from the 2009 German Epidemiological Survey of Substance Abuse and from a study on slot machine gamblers were used. Item Response Theory analysis was applied to estimate discrimination and severity parameters of the criteria. With the use of Differential Item Functioning analysis, potential criterion biases were analysed.We analysed data from 107 participants from the general population sample and 376 participants from the slot machine gamblers’ sample who answered a 19-item diagnostic questionnaire based on the DSM criteria for gambling disorder. Results: A single underlying factor, the severity of gambling disorder, was identified in both samples. In the general population sample the criteria of preoccupation and chasing were least severe and showed low discriminatory power. Bailout, withdrawal and jeopardized matters criteria had highest severity and discriminatory power. The comparison of the two samples revealed two criterion biases in the preoccupation and tolerance criteria. Conclusions: The structure underlying the criteria is unidimensional but the disorder is manifested differently depending on disorder severity. The assumed equal impact of each criterion lacks support in the findings. The DSM-5 criteria measure a partially different construct in slot machine gamblers than in gamblers in the general population.

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Efekat boje pozadine i osvetljenja na opaženu svetlinu

Author(s): Sunčica Zdravković / Language(s): Serbian / Issue: 4/2007

Four experiments attempted to establish an effect of context on lightness. Lightness is one of the dimensions of color and it varies from black to white. Most of our stimuli were inspired by simultaneous lightness contrast illusion. First two experiments contrast the size of an effect produced by the change of background color vs. the change in illumination. The third experiment deals with different type of illusions, where the effect is obtained through the appearance of multiple illumination levels. The last experiment takes into account the ratio of the target and the background. The results reveal the size of effects produced separately by the background color and illumination level and suggest the prime importance of background. Also there are other factors such as reflectance range in the scene, incremental and decremental targets, and 2D vs. 3D representation.

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ELEMENTE JUNGIENE ÎN CREAŢIA PINEI BAUSCH (1940-2009)

Author(s): Geta-Violeta RĂVDAN / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 15-16/2018

Haunted by the shadow of the Nazi horrors, the creation of Pina Bausch is characterized by specific elements of the theories of psychoanalyst Carl Gustav Jung. Through evacuation mechanisms, Pina attacks subliminal Fascist psychology aimed at annihilation of the individual Self. If in her first performances she creates through the individual memory of her performers, over the time, she will appeal to universal human memory and collective consciousness. In her creation there are also other characteristic Jungian features: the death of being, numinosity, the principle of paradoxical logic.

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Emocionalna inteligencija i školski uspjeh

Author(s): Ivana Milosavljević / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 6/2009

Ovim istraživačkim radom nastojali smo doprinijeti razumijevanju koncepta emocionalne inteligencije i utvrditi povezanost između njenih različitih kriterija i sociometrijskoga statusa, školskog uspjeha, spoli i dobi. Na uzorku od 133 učenika prvih i četvrtih razreda srednje škole ispitani su međusobni odnosi rezultata dobivenih primjenom pokazatelja sposobnosti emocionalne inteligencije. Ustanovili smo da sposobnosti emocionalne inteligencije, zajedno sa sociometrijskim statusom, spolom i dobi značajno doprinose predviđanju varijance školskoga uspjeha. Pri tome prediktorski set varijabli predviđa 14,3 % ukupne varijance školskog uspjeha. Kao snažan pojedinačni prediktor školskoga uspjeha vidimo spol, dob i sposobnost izražavanja i imenovanja emocija koje predstavljaju statistički značajne prediktore školskog uspjeha. Na osnovi sposobnosti upravljanja i kontrole emocija možemo predvidjeti sociometrijski status. Primijetili smo da sposobnost emocionalne inteligencije u negativnom smjeru predviđa sociometrijski status, tako da manja pojavnost ove sposobnosti predviđa viši sociometrijski status učenika. Rezultati ukazuju na postojanje spolnih razlika u prvom kriteriju emocionalne inteligencije, gdje su učenice, za razliku od učenika, sposobnije u uočavanju i razumijevanju emocija. Pronađene su, također, i statistički značajne razlike između učenica i učenika u školskom uspjehu, pri čemu su učenice ostvarile veći uspjeh. Rezultati ukazuju na to da ispitanici oba spola prosječno imaju jednake sposobnosti izražavanja i imenovanja te sposobnosti upravljanja i kontrole emocija.

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Emotional Investment at Work

Author(s): Nevena Krasulja,Milica Vasiljevic Blagojević,Suzana Pajić / Language(s): English / Issue: 20/2017

Nowadays an increasingly popular research topic has become emotions and their expressions in the workplace. Generally, emotions have very strong impact at employees’ ability to act, think and communicate effectively. Author Hochschild was the first who defined emotional labor as “the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display”. Quality of interactions between employees and clients is the essence of this concept. In this context client can be any person who interacts with an employee (customer, patient, guest, etc.). During that interaction employees must express appropriate emotions as a part of job description. There are many examples of such behavior - teachers or medical staff have to show empathy in front of students or patients. The main point is that employees have multiple tasks of managing not only their mental and physical effort, but also emotional capacity. In part of this paper, authors also presented emotional labor among university professors. They conclude that in Serbia research that measures emotional exhaustion still don`t exists. So the next step will be conducting of quantitative research that will ensure that the collected data can provide useful information.

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ENGAGEMENT IN LEARNING AS MEDIATOR BETWEEN MOTIVATIONAL BELIEFS AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT: A PATH ANALYSIS

Author(s): Viorel-Beniamin Mih,Codruţa-Alina Mih / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2020

This study applied the Expectancy-Value Theory to explore the directionality of the associations among academic self-efficacy, motivational beliefs (e.g., expectation of success, task value), procrastination, and engagement in learning as well as the impact of these constructs on educational attainment. The data analysis was done by using structural equation modeling. The results reveal important associations among students’ personal variables. Correlational and path analyses show that: (a) self-efficacy is consistently found to predict both expectation of success, task value and procrastination, (b) the associations between self-efficacy and engagement are mediated by motivational beliefs and procrastination, (c) different faceted of engagement (class participation, homework completion, absenteeism) in high school predict educational attainment, and (d) class participation had stronger effects on educational attainment than homework completion. The data analysis provided empirical evidence to better understand the mechanism that mediates self-efficacy and school achievement. Also, the study provides empirical evidence supporting the multifaceted nature of school engagement and demonstrates its utility relative to educational success. The implications of these findings for teaching and learning a specific subject matter in formal classroom contexts are discussed.

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Ethical Dilemmas in Education

Author(s): Andreea Filip,Sinziana Elena Mititelu / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2015

Ethics, one of the main branches of philosophy, deals with researching moral issues, dealing, for example, with the issue of good and evil, situational behavior and even with what we are supposed to do in certain instances, because, as Aristotle claimed, ethics can be seen as the sum of traditions and human behaviors and how it regards the way in which we act and react according to the principles rooted deep down into ourselves. Also, ethics must be correlated with the usefulness and the morality of an action, as well as with the issue of good and evil. Starting from these, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the directions ethics take in the educational system, in the context in which the issue of ethics is raised more and more often in some schools. That being said, we will also recount a few case studies starting from personal and professional experience.

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Evcil Hayvana Bağlanma Ölçeği: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması

Author(s): Özge Şahin,Yasemin Kahya / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 12/2018

The aim of the current study is to test the validity and reliability of the Pet Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ), which assess attachment orientation toward pet. The sample of the study consisted of 260 pet owners (24 males and 234 females) aged between 19 and 62 years. In line with the study purpose, participants were asked to complete Demographic Form, Pet Attachment Questionnaire, Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale, CES-Depression Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, Penn Inventory of Scrupulosity, Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised, Satisfaction with Life Scale. For the test-retest reliability analysis, 57 of the participants were reached again. Data were analyzed via SPSS and AMOS programs. As a result of the explanatory and confirmatory factor analysis, the two-factor structure of the PAQ, defined as anxiety and avoidance was supported. Further statistical analyses supported that PAQ was a valid and reliable measurement tool in the assessment of the attachment orientation towards pet.

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Formowanie wrażeń na temat osobowości – proces niezbędny czy szkodliwy? Przegląd badań i implikacje praktyczne

Author(s): Iwona Nowakowska / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 36/2016

CEL NAUKOWY: Celem niniejszego artykułu jest odniesienie wyników badań naukowych dotyczących formowania wrażeń na temat osobowości i roli efektu halo w tym procesie do klasycznej serii badań Solomona Ascha z 1946 r. doty­czącej tego tematu. W artykule Ascha przedstawiającym te badania uwzględnio­ne są teorie i pojęcia cytowane oraz rozszerzane współcześnie przez psycholo­gów poznania społecznego.PROBLEM I METODY BADAWCZE: Opracowanie stanowi krytyczny przegląd raportów z badań naukowych dotyczących zagadnienia formowania wrażeń na temat osobowości. Wyniki analizy tych prac pozwoliły na przedstawienie w niniej­szym artykule teorii Solomona Ascha w zaktualizowanym świetle.PROCES WYWODU: W pierwszej części artykułu omówiono wpływ cech cen­tralnych, w szczególności „ciepła” i „chłodu”, odpowiadających za całościową ocenę człowieka. W części drugiej poruszono temat czynników zewnętrznych, na przykład kolejności poznawania cech, wpływu afektywnego i czasu trwania znajomości z ocenianą osobą na uformowane wrażenie. W części trzeciej opi­sano zjawisko zmian znaczeniowych cech osobowości w zależności od współ­występujących z nimi charakterystyk.WYNIKI ANALIZY NAUKOWEJ: Przedstawione w pracy eksperymenty po­twierdzają obserwacje Ascha oraz wspierają tezę, że ogólne wrażenie o osobie wpływa na percepcję jej poszczególnych cech. Ludzie nie zdają sobie na ogół sprawy z występowania tego zjawiska.WNIOSKI, INNOWACJE, REKOMENDACJE: Wyniki badań omówionych w ar­tykule mają szereg implikacji praktycznych dla osób wykonujących zawody zwią­zane z ocenianiem, takich jak nauczyciele, rekruterzy czy jurorzy, a także dla osób poddawanych ocenie. Warto, by osoby te zdawały sobie sprawę ze znie­kształceń, jakie niesie z sobą automatyczne formowanie wrażeń na temat oso­bowości czy kompetencji innych osób, i miały świadomość, że uleganie takiemu mechanizmowi często łączy się z odpowiedzialnością za los ocenianej osoby, np. w kontekście jej kariery szkolnej czy pracy zawodowej.

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From the Mouths of Social Media Users: a Focus Group Study Exploring the Social Casino Gaming–Online Gambling Link

Author(s): Hyoun S. Kim,Michael J. A. Wohl,Rina Gupta,Jeffrey Derevensky / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2016

The potential link between social casino gaming and online gambling has raised considerable concerns among clinicians, researchers and policy makers. Unfortunately, however, there is a paucity of research examining this potential link, especially among young adults. This represents a significant gap given young adults are frequently exposed to and are players of social casino games. Methods: To better understand the potential link between social casino games and online gambling, we conducted three focus groups (N = 30) at two large Canadian Universities with college students who were avid social media users (who are regularly exposed to social casino games). Results: Many participants spontaneously mentioned that social casino games were a great opportunity to build gambling skills before playing for real money. Importantly, some participants expressed a belief that there is a direct progression from social casino gaming to online gambling. Conversely, others believed the transition to online gambling depended on a person’s personality, rather than mere exposure to social casino games. While many young adults in our focus groups felt immune to the effects of social casino games, there was a general consensus that social casino games may facilitate the transition to online gambling among younger teenagers (i.e., 12–14 yr old), due to the ease of accessibility and early exposure. Discussion: The results of the present research point to the need for more study on the effects of social casino gambling as well as a discussion concerning regulation of social casino games in order to minimize their potential risks.

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Gambling disorder: Association between duration of illness, clinical, and neurocognitive variables

Author(s): Gustavo C. MEDEIROS,Sarah A. Redden,Samuel R. Chamberlain,Jon E. Grant / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2017

Gambling disorder (GD) may have its onset in a wide range of ages, from adolescents to old adults. In addition, individuals with GD tend to seek treatment at different moments in their lives. As a result of these characteristics (variable age at onset and variable age at treatment seeking), we find subjects with diverse duration of illness (DOI) in clinical practice. DOI is an important but relatively understudied factor in GD. Our objective was to investigate clinical and neurocognitive characteristics associated with different DOI. Methods: This study evaluated 448 adults diagnosed with GD. All assessments were completed prior to treatments being commenced. Results: Our main results were: (a) there is a negative correlation between DOI and lag between first gambling and onset of GD; (b) lifetime history of alcohol use disorder (AUD) is associated with a longer duration of GD; (c) the presence of a firstdegree relative with history of AUD is associated with a more extended course of GD; and (d) there is a negative correlation between DOI and quality of life. Discussion: This study suggests that some important variables are associated with different DOI. Increasing treatment-seeking behavior, providing customized psychological interventions, and effectively managing AUD may decrease the high levels of chronicity in GD. Furthermore, research on GD such as phenomenological studies and clinical trials may consider the duration of GD in their methodology. DOI might be an important variable when analyzing treatment outcome and avoiding confounders.

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