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The paper is part of a series of publications that aim to examine various aspects in the analysis of appositive constructions. The purpose of this particular study is to reveal the multidimensional, diverse, and complex interaction between three types of syntactic relations – attributive, predicative, and appositive. The study offers a critical review of various theories on the status of the grammatical relation between the components of non-detached (close) appositive constructions. The main argument of this paper is that determining this status, on the one hand, is a function of the morphological and semantic characteristics of the components of the construction; and on the other hand, it determines their syntactic status.
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Bulgarian linguistic publications describe (non-)witnessing of the perfect in different and controversial terms. Many do not tackle the issue, some claim that the perfect is neutral as to witnessing. Prevalent is the view that three major separate values, grammaticalized, underlie the sam+-l (i.e., be+past active participle) forms: perfect, inferential, re-narrative. But if these are three homonymous grammemes and the perfect is neutral as to witnessing, it will turn out that perfects counter inferentials and re-narratives with this specific property absent in the latter two – because they are strictly non-witnessed. Such a thesis would be defective, however, because third-person present perfect forms, much more frequent, are non-witnessed, with no exception at all. They are non-witnessed also when formed from imperfect participles. Non-third person perfect forms are subject to further study. But the status of third-person perfect forms as non witnessed must be incorporated into Bulgarian grammars, because the absence of this major characteristic discredits them.
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Romanian supine is a non-finite verb form which moves away, to a greater or lesser extent, from the prototypical manifestation of the verb. Croatian also knows non-finite verb forms, but supine is not found among them. Having as a starting point the typology of supine structures (the supine after aspectual and transitive verbs, the supine with purpose value after motion verbs, the supine after impersonal verbs, after nouns and adjectives and the supine in the hanging topic pattern), we will follow the manner in which the supine is rendered in Croatian, based on examples from literary texts translated from Romanian into Croatian.
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Kibun (気分) and kimochi (気持ち) are Japanese near-synonyms words difficult to distinguish from each other in terms of meaning and usage based on their dictionary definitions. In this article, in order to reveal the semantic and usage differences of these two words, the collocations that form with these words are evaluated within the framework of conceptual metaphor theory. The sample of the study consists of collocations in the structure of “kibun 気分 /kimochi 気持ち + preposition + verb” in the corpus named BCCWJ Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese. According to the findings of the study, kibun (気分) is something that has a taste and moves up and down in the body; kimochi (気持 ち ) is something that is understood, communicated to others, expressed in words and occupies space in the body.
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The paper presents an account of participles as an independent class of lexemes on the basis of their morphemic structure. The participial morphemes -л and -н/-т in the structure of the so-called past perfect active and past passive participles are treated as primary expressors of resultative and passive semantics. These morphemes are not only word-forming segments but also indicators of grammatical semantics. This is an important argument for the exclusion of participles both from the verbal and from the adjectival system as proposed by Kutsarov (Куцаров/Kutsarov 2012). In addition, I present models for the morphemic segmentation of adjectives, verbs and participles.
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У раду се, на грађи Његошевог спјева Шћепан Мали, разматрају питања идентификације лексичких русизама, и то: чистих, морфемских (афиксалних) и семантичких (српска форма уз руско значење) [т. II], као и питања идентификације лексичких (црквено)славенизама (општеславенских, рускославенских, српскославенских и хибридних) [т. III], да би се у одјељку „Исходи“, као студија случаја, размотрило творбено-семантичко гнијездо |бријег/брег/бреж| [т. IV]. У раду се примјењује поредбена интертекстуална анализа с другим Његошевим дјелима (прије свега са спјевовима Горски вијенац и Луча микрокозма, али и с пјесмама и текстовима из Биљежнице).
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We investigate Chaucer’s use of interjections in Fragment III of the Canterbury Tales, which comprises “The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale”, “The Friar’s Prologue and Tale”, and “The Summoner’s Prologue and Tale”. We discuss the problem of how to distinguish interjections from other word classes, and we distinguish primary interjections such as allas, buf, ey, fy, hayt, lo, weilawei and secondary interjections, such as hayl, look, now, peace, welcome, why. As a third group we also take corroborative phrases such as by God into consideration. We look at the frequency of the various interjections: Now, lo, nay as well as a, by God, and pardee are frequent and occur in all the tales of Fragment III; on the other end of the frequency scale there are buf, which is a hapax legomenon, and the rarely attested hayt. We describe the interjectional spectrum used in Fragment III based on their functions. Interjections can, for example, serve as indicators of emotions (allas, weilawei), as corroboratives (by God) and expletives (a devel weye), as discourse markers (now thanne), as response forms (nay, ye, yis), as polite speech act formulae (grant mercy, no fors), etc. The paper further offers an analysis of the phonology, morphology, verse meter and stress pattern. As can be said of the Middle English vocabulary more generally, the etymology of the interjections is mixed: some go back to Old English, especially weilawei, but many were borrowed from French (or ultimately from Latin), e.g., allas, ey, fy, pardee. Chaucer’s characters often use not just one, but two or three interjections in combination, e.g., Allas! and weylawey! or allas nay, nay, mainly probably for additional emphasis. We suggest that that the interjectional spectrum in Fragment III (1) expands on Biber et al’s. (1999) inserts and Culpeper & Kytö’s (2010) pragmatic noise; (2) undergoes change like words; and is indexical (3) of a multi-lingual social context (4) and of oral and literary conventions.
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Acquisition of language includes the occurrence of grammar, therefore it is strongly connected with the following language components: phonetics and phonology, morphology, semantics, lexicology, pragmatics and syntax. When the child produces its first word (1 – 1.5 year), this is the moment when its syntactic development begins. The sentences produced between the first and the second year are single-element expressions (so-called telegraph sentences of truncated structure (Jelaska 2007). About the age of two, the sentence is extended to become a two-element structure, while at the age of three the child already possesses a certain fund of words to which it can apply morphological rules and which it can arrange in more complex syntactic structures (Kuvač 2007). It is considered that the child extends its sentence by one word per year so that on the average, a seven-year-old child can produce a sentence of seven words (Pavličević-Franić 2005). The concept of the children’s language (Jakobson 1941, according to Bežen 2009) is a result of early language learning and it is a crucial issue of the language acquisition which does not end when the child enters school. Therefore, it is the aim of the research to determine the developmental features and their influence on acquisition of Croatian language syntax in early institutional teaching (from the age of 7 to the age of 12, i.e. from the 1st to the 6th grade of primary school). The corpus consists of written works of students (N = 174). The data will be analyzed by the method of content analysis and processed by the SPSS statistics software.
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This is an overview of a syntactic model formed by a figurative principle, where the structuring of the linguistic content and its meaning, is determined and made by that same concept by which metaphorical forms evolve. The meaning of such term is defined by the context, literal reading of the language content. Therefore, the seemingly unacceptable forms of language impose their new, figurative meaning. The replacement, or reduction of the lingual content, is conducted in a way that it preserves the logical connection to the point of origin, the literal content. This concept is found in the use of prepositional and case significant terms i.e. their local and spatial properties. The linguistic sign is changed by metonymic mapping. This enables a better exchange of information in the communication process, a literal understanding can lead to interference in the communication channel. This paper demonstrates the grammatical validity of such linguistic forms and expressions, and thus resolves the possible dilemma about certain spelling issues.
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The study dwells on aspects of the complexity of encoding space in language by focusing on affixes of spatial orientation in English. As a linguistic means of denoting space, prefixation is of higher productivity compared to suffixation in English. The affixes of spatial orientation in English are explored with reference to the process of grammaticalization in view of their origin in prepositions and spatial adverbs. The grammaticalization path of spatial affixes in English is outlined followed by a detailed study of their function with reference to derivation as a type of word formation. The lexical meanings of spatial affixes in English are also analysed, namely general lexical meanings of horizontal and vertical orientation and specific lexical meanings of degree, manner, direction, etc. The grammatical meanings of spatial affixes in English are also analysed mainly with reference to the category of aspectuality, drawing parallels with the aspectual function of adverbial particles of phrasal verbs.
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The paper is an attempt to look at Bulgarian causative verbs in cognitive aspect – imposed by changes in the way of thinking of the speaker as their own choice to use a transitive causative verb. In reference to the degrees of transitivity, it was found that the grammatical change in transitivity ~ intransitivity among ex-reflexives is more striking in stylistic or pragmatic sense in comparison with regular transitive, derived by removal of preposition. We present the model of Nedyalkov & Silnitsky with Bulgarian examples, as well as a scale of prototypical causativity. The comparative research method is necessary because of more frequent resemblance to the English language in the scope of verbal morphology. We also offer a brief description of the motifs which give reasons for verbal tranisitivization and dereflexivization.
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In many of the languages featuring a present perfect, its meaning is regarded as a riddle. Bulgarian grammars maintain a severely defective thesis that the present perfect is not formed from imperfect participles, underlying another erroneous thesis, viz., that imperfect participles have no nominal (NP) use. Based on the analysis and other current research undertaken by the author, a completely novel conception of the Bulgarian present perfect is proposed. Just like grammatical phenomena such as gender and nominal determination through articles, the present perfect exercises structural functions and does not possess immanent semantics necessary for communication through natural language. The essence of the present perfect can be found not in something that it signifies but in something that it does not signify: witnessed situations. The present perfect counters the value “witnessed” expressed by the aorist and the imperfect, and its value “non-witnessed” normalizes a certain type of non-grammatical sentences.
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The present study examines the suffix -dji (-ci)/-chi (-çi) in a Bulgarian dialect on the territory of the Republic of Albania. It is the most southwestern living Bulgarian language. The material will be of is of considerable interest to Bulgarian linguistics and more specifically to Bulgarian dialectology.
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Since the early times of human history, the medical act developed in parallel with magic and other unscientific practices. The healing methods and the pain therapy would have two distinct features: the preservation of the Greek and Latin medical terminology in the learned medical circles, and the modest medical knowledge for the majority of the doctors. Medicine has done a long way through the dark ages of ignorance. In Romania, the popular medical language has been used until the Phanariot times, when the Greeks occupying high positions started to bring western teachers for their progeny and, in the 19th century, a number of youth from Romania went to French, German, Austrian and Italian universities. These exchanges caused the beneficial opening to French, German and Italian, which, after Greek and Latin, became the main academic languages in Europe. The translations from these languages, as well as the presence on Romanian territory of different representatives of these nations on one hand, and the emerging Romanian schools and universities on the other hand, have endowed Romanian language with a rich and ever updated medical terminology. During the last decades, however, English has become the Lingua Franca in Medicine. Romanian is one of the languages that have adopted a large number of English medical terms, as a result of the countless exchanges and contacts of our specialists in different medical fields and of our medical students with the English speaking medical community and media.
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The article deals with words of English origin (with the terminal suffix -ing) which have penetrated into contemporary Slavic languages. The general introduction into the characteristics of -ing lexemes in the English language as well as principles of lexical unit adaptation are provided. The main emphasis is put on orthographic, morphological, word-formation and semantic adaptation of the lexical units in the Slovak, Russian and Czech languages.
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The paper examines the usage of the verbs sbadvam and sluchvam (‘make come true’ and ‘make happen’) as „new“ transitive and causal verbs, often occur as phraseological units (sbadna/sbadvam mechti, zhelanija; sluchvam neshtata). Although we can’t except a foreign influence, the changes in two „ex-reflexive“ verbs argue for change in thinking of modern Bulgarian. This is the active, energetic standpoint, which is demonstrated by opinions of speakers themselves. These different views are in comments, discussed the analyzed tendencies to transitivity and dereflexivity of Bulgarian verb.
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Although it is not a part of flexible speech, the adverb can present and analyze from different perspectives, offering a particular aspect to the class to which it belongs. This study presents the pragmatic aspects of the adverb used in the current Spanish political discourse. It will be noticed that adverbs - pragmatic marks have different roles (concession, agreement, reformulation, introducing a theme of discourse, conclusion, confirmation, correction, disagreement etc.), depending on the context in which they are found.
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The article looks at the ways the spelling of foreign words of French origin has become fixed in Estonian, with a focus on the adaptation into Estonian of words pronounced with an open e in French. In Estonian, the spelling of foreign words typically follows their pronunciation, i.e., the spelling is based on the approximate pronunciation in the (original) language. Hence, the variations in the spelling of the Estonian adaptations likely derive from the French pronunciation instructions provided in Estonian sources and possibly from the influence of intermediary languages. Two spellings of the word for the French choux pastry cake eclair currently co¬exist in Estonian: ekleer and ekläär. The word first appeared in ÕS 1960 as ekläär and was also standardized as ekleer in 2013; as such, it is a good example of the adaptation of French words in Estonian. The adaptation of French borrowings containing an open e has been inconsis¬tent in Estonian. The initial fixation of the word éclair with the spelling ekläär likely derived from the erstwhile custom of pronouncing the open e in the stressed syllables of French words as a long ä in Estonian. An effort was probably also made to avoid the spelling coinciding with the Russian form (эклер); there is a general tendency to ignore Russian-influenced forms when it comes to the standardization of foreign words in Estonian. The variation of the open e in Estonian adaptations has been affected by pronunciation – differences in the phonotactics of French and Estonian – as well as inter¬mediary languages: German, Swedish and Russian.
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