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The main aim of this article is to investigate the methodology of Bernhard Pünjer’s theology in relationship to Johann Zöllner’s astronomy. These two scholars lived in the 19th century, in which several kinds of science spectacu- larly developed. How did Pünjer react to the growth of science, for instance to Zöllner’s idea of astronomy? The paper presents Pünjer’s position as contra- sted with Zöllner’s main point of view.
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This paper is aimed to present Kazimierz Wais’ considerations on the concept of the origin of man. Kazimierz Wais (1865-1934) was a Polish philosopher and theologian, a professor at the Uni- versity of L’viv. In his publications, Wais criticized the purely naturalistic theory of the origin of man and presented a posi- tive theory not inconsistent with the Biblical description; he also commented on the issue of the origin of human soul. His views were strongly affected by neo-Thomistic philosophy. The paper shows Wais’ attempts to prove the harmony of science and faith regarding the origin of man. His reflections are presented and critically commented.
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The religious tour of seven Roman basilicas described back in the 16th century by St Philip Neri is thought to have its roots in folk tradition, though undoubtedly was a product of recalling and adapting the memory of an old, ludic prayer tradition to the new circumstances. The itinerary described by the saint listed four major basilicas: St Peter’s Basilica in Vatican, St Paul’s Basilica Outside the Walls, Basilica of St John Lateran, Basilica of St Mary and three minor ones: Basilica of the Cross of Jerusalem, St Basilica of St Lawrence Outside the Walls, and St Sebastian’s Basilica.In 1621 the Krakow printing house of Franciszek Cezary issued a brochure entitled Siedm kościołów krakowskich. Its release was initiated by Marcin Szyszkowski, who had stayed in Rome for many years, where he acquainted himself with the work of St PhilipNeri. The moment Szyszkowski became the Krakow bishop, he began to implement elements of post-Trent devotion of the Eternal City in his own diocese. One of such innovations was to initiate the Service of the Seven Krakow Churches, which was granted privileges and indulgences of the Roman pilgrimage trail. /Przypuszcza się, iż opisany w XVI wieku przez św. Filipa Nereusza szlak wędrówki dewocyjnej po siedmiu bazylikach Rzymu mógł mieć swoje źródła w tradycji ludowej, a bez wątpienia wynikał z przywołania i zaadaptowania do nowych warunków pamięci o znanej niegdyś ludycznej w charakterze obrzędowości modlitewnej. Opisane przez tego świętego itinerarium pielgrzymie wyznaczały cztery bazyliki większe: św. Piotra na Watykanie, św. Pawła za Murami, św. Jana na Lateranie, Najświętszej Maryi Panny Śnieżnej oraz trzy mniejsze: św. Krzyża Jerozolimskiego, św. Wawrzyńca za Murami oraz św. Sebastiana.W 1621 roku w krakowskiej oficynie drukarskiej Franciszka Cezarego została wydana broszura zatytułowana Siedm kościołów krakowskich. Inicjatorem jej druku był biskup krakowski Marcin Szyszkowski, który przez wiele lat przebywał w Rzymie, gdzie zapoznał się z działalnością św. Filipa Nereusza. Od chwili, kiedy został biskupem krakowskim zaczął zaszczepiać w swojej diecezji elementy potrydenckiej dewocji Wiecznego Miasta. Jednym z nich było zainicjowanie nabożeństwa Siedmiu kościołów krakowskich, które otrzymało przywileje i odpusty rzymskiego szlaku pątniczego.
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Biskup diecezji wileńskiej Adam Stanisław Krasiński (1810–1891) dał się poznać nie tylko jako aktywny hierarcha Kościoła katolickiego, ale też jako zaangażowany uczestnik ówczesnego życia kulturalnego i literackiego. Za niedostosowanie się do instrukcji generalnego gubernatora Michaiła Murawjowa nakazującej wydanie okólnika potępiającego powstanie styczniowe Krasiński na początku lata 1863 roku został zesłany do Wiatki (obecnie Kirow). Zwolniony z wygnania został w 1883 roku, ale bez prawa powrotu do swojej diecezji, dlatego osiadł w Krakowie.Krakowski okres życia biskupa z twórczego punktu widzenia było bardzo aktywny. Od młodości interesując się literaturą, przygotował słownik synonimów polskich. W Krakowie zaczął również pisać wspomnienia. Po raz pierwszy pamiętniki biskupa wileńskiego – Wspomnienia – napisane w ojczystym języku polskim ukazały się w 1900 roku w krakowskiej gazecie „Czas”. W tym samym roku 1900 (lub też na początku 1901), wydawnictwo „Czas” opublikowało je jako książkę w nakładzie 150 egzemplarzy. We wspomnieniach są bardzo ciekawe szczegóły z historii zakonu pijarów, o położeniu Kościoła katolickiego na ziemiach dawnej Rzeczypospolitej Obojga Narodów, które zostały zagarnięte przez imperium rosyjskie. Znajdujemy tam także wiadomości o literackich i intelektualnych realiach życia w Wilnie. Dwadzieścia lat wygnania opisał bardzo zwięźle, a życia w Krakowie po powrocie z wygnania nie wspomniał w ogóle.Artykuł pragnie zrekonstruować drogę Wspomnień biskupa wileńskiego od rękopisu do druku na początku wieku XX. Podczas odkrywania okoliczności tworzenia i publikowania Wspomnień ustalono, że w zbiorach Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie od 1917 roku znajduje się nie rękopis Wspomnień Krasińskiego, lecz wersja redakcyjna złożona z fragmentów autografu. Należy przyjąć, że oryginalne Wspomnienia nie zachowały się. Stanisław Estreicher (1869–1939), profesor na Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie i współpracownik dziennika „Czas”, zredagował rękopis. Niewątpliwe jest, że część pamiętników Krasińskiego była wśród rękopisów przewiezionych w 1927 roku z Muzeum Polskiego w Rapperswilu do Biblioteki Narodowej w Warszawie. Adnotacja dawnego rękopisu Krasińskich w Rapperswilu pozwala stwierdzić, że jeden z nich był częścią wspomnień biskupa o jego latach spędzonych na wygnaniu. Przygotowujący Wspomnienia Krasińskiego do publikacji w 1900 roku Stanisław Estreicher nic o rękopisie Krasińskiego w Rapperswilu nie wiedział. Kiedy i jak rękopis Krasińskiego dostał się do muzeum w Rapperswilu nie jest oczywiste. Rękopis Wspomnień Krasińskiego został przekazany do Warszawy w 1927 roku do zbiorów Biblioteki Narodowej, gdzie zniszczony został w czasie Powstania Warszawskiego. Nie ma danych, które wskazywałyby, że w przyszłości można by było ów ostatni rękopis (lub jego kopię) gdzieś odnaleźć. Geneza Wspomnień biskupa wileńskiego Adama Stanisława Krasińskiego, historia konserwacji rękopisu oraz jego przygotowania do publikacji kryją więcej niż jedną tylko zagadkę. / Bishop of Vilnius Diocese Adam Stanisław Krasiński (1810–1891) left a deep imprint not only as an active hierarch of the Roman Catholic Church, but also as an energetic participant of 19th c. cultural life, a man of letters. Not complying with the instruction of Governor General Michael Murav’ev to issue a circular condemning the 1863 uprising, Krasiński in the early summer of 1863 was exiled to Vyatka (now Kirov). Released from exile in 1883, without the right to return to his diocese, Krasiński settled in Krakow.The period of the life of the bishop in Krakow from a creative point of view was very productive. From his youth interested in literature, having also been a man of letters, the preparer of a dictionary of Polish synonyms, Krasiński while living in Krakow began to write memoirs. For the first time the Memoirs [Wspomnienia] of the Bishop of Vilnius written in his native Polish were published in 1900 in the newspaper „Czas”, and in the same year 1900 (or in early 1901) the „Czas” publishing house issued them as a book with a press run of 150 copies. In the Memoirs there are interesting details from the history of the Piarist order, about the situation of the Roman Catholic Church in the lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth that after its collapse fell to the Russian Empire, and the literary and intellectual realities of life in Vilnius. The twenty years of exile are described very succinctly and the life in Krakow after returning from exile is not even mentioned at all.The paper reconstructs the path of the Vilnius Bishop’s memoirs from manuscript to printing at the beginning of the 20th c. While uncovering the circumstances of the writing and publishing of the Memoirs, it was determined that in the collections of the National Museum in Krakow since 1917 is stored not the manuscript of Krasiński ‘s memoirs, but its editorial version with fragments of the autograph. It is assumed that the original memoirs have not survived. Stanisław Estreicher (1869–1939), then a professor at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow and a contributor to the newspaper „Czas”, edited the manuscript. It is clear that part of Krasiński’s Memoirs were among the manuscripts transferred from the Polish Museum in Rapperswil to the National Library in Warsaw in 1927. The annotation of the former Krasiński manuscript in Rapperswil lets one declare that among them was the part of the bishop’s memoirs about his years spent in exile. The preparer of the Krasiński Memoirs for publication in 1900 Stanisław Estreicher did not know anything about the Krasiński ‘s memoirs manuscript in Rapperswil. When and how the Krasiński manuscripts arrived in the Rapperswil museum is unclear. The manuscript of Krasiński’s memoirs handed over to Warsaw in the 1920s ended up in the collections of the National Library destroyed during the war. There are no data that would suggest that the latter manuscript (or its copy) could be found in the future. The genesis of the memoirs of Vilnius Bishop Krasiński, the history of the manuscript’s preservation and its preparation for publication hide more than one riddle
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Artykuł omawia problematykę odrodzenia kościoła katolickiego na przełomie XX i XXI wieku, na szerokim tle historycznym. The article discusses the issues surrounding the revival of the Catholic Church at the turn of the 21st century against a broad historical background.
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Artykuł omawia działalność polityczną Zbigniewa Oleśnickiego i polskiej hierarchii kościelnej w dobie tzw. burzy koronacyjnej. The article outlines the political activity of Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the Polish church hierarchy in the era of the so-called 'coronation dispute
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Studies on medieval images of the life of Jesus Christ have so far focused either on the narrative perspective of the Christological cycle, presenting in a holistic and synthetic way the life and work of the Saviour, or isolated the Passion cycle revealing the suffering and death of Christ. However, in the Middle Ages there was a clear trend which focused on the events of last days of his life and events following his death. Such events are referred to as the Passover of Christ or the Paschal Mystery. This study is aimed not only to indicate sample presentations of the Passover but also attempts to interpret them.
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Przedmiotem analizy jest obraz Matki Bożej namalowany w typie Niepokalanej w pełnej postaci, w dwóch wersjach, zróżnicowanych symbolami Trójcy Świętej. Oba obrazy namalowane zostały według wstępnego projektu, wykonanego farbami pastelowymi na kartonie. Artysta Adolf Hyła namalował je według wskazań m. Pauli Zofii Tajber, założycielki Zgromadzenia Najświętszej Duszy Chrystusa Pana, która w dniu 13 września 1953 roku miała wizję - objawienie Matki Bożej w pierwotnej kaplicy zgromadzenia na Prądniku Białym. The subject of the analysis is a picture of the Mother of God painted as the Immaculate in full form, in two versions, differing in the symbols of the Holy Trinity. Both paintings were made according to a preliminary design, which had been performed in pastels on carton. Artist Adolf Hyła painted them according to an account by Mother Paula Zofia Tajber, founder of the Gathering of the Most Holy Soul of Our Lord Jesus, who on 13 September 1953 had a vision in which Our Lady appeared to her in the gathering's original chapel in Prądnik Biały.
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Artykuł poświęcony jest problematyce działania Boga w świecie przyrody. Zaprezentowano w nim argumenty przemawiające za modelem nieinterwencjonistycznym, w którym zakłada się, że Bóg konsekwentnie respektuje porządek przyczyn i skutków wynikający z praw przyrody, i zamierzone przez siebie efekty uzyskuje bez naruszania tego porządku. Historia ewoluującego wszechświata, którą badają nauki empiryczne, jest w perspektywie teologicznej historią działania Boga, który stwarza świat i podtrzymuje go w istnieniu za pośrednictwem praw przyrody powodujących stopniowy rozwój wszechświata i ewolucję życia. W kolejnych częściach artykułu podjęta została problematyka praw przyrody, stwórczej obecności Boga w przyrodzie oraz działania Stwórcy dokonującego się za pośrednictwem przyczyn wtórnych (argument św. Tomasza). W zakończeniu wskazano na zalety modelu nieinterwencjonistycznego. This paper deals with the problem of God’s action in nature. It is argued that the divine action is always non-interventional, which means that God never violates the laws of nature. He creates the evolving universe, keeps it in existence and continously influences its history using these laws, and not breaking them. At first, the character of the laws of nature will be discussed – both in scientific and theological perspective. Later, the creative presence of God in the universe will be described. Special attention will be paid to St. Thomas Aquinas argument concerning the distinction between the first cause (which should be identified with God) and the secondary cause (which should be identified with all the physical causes explored by science). Finally, some advantages of the non-intervetnional model of the divine action in nature will be indicated.
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Il Movimento Luce-Vita in Polonia e uno tra molti movimenti del rinnovamento della Chiesa di quali ha parlato il Concilio Vaticano II. Il suo obiettivo e pero la liturgia sulla quale si concentra per badare la sua rinascita. Lo scopo di questo movimento e condurre la gente alla maturità cristiana, attraverso la liturgia che e fonte e culmine della vita cristiana. Il movimento propone, dunque, un vasto programma formativo per i fedeli adatto, sia per i laici, sia per i preti che per le persone consacrate, rispettando anche le differenze dell’età. The Light-Life Movement is one of the movements of renewal of the Catholic Church according to the teaching of the Second Vatican Council. It is directed especially towards the renewal of the liturgy. The goal of the Light-Life Movement is to lead people to the maturity of Christian faith through liturgy, because the liturgy is the font and the summit of the Christian life. The Movement offers the formation programmes for the believers of different age and state – lay people, priests or religious.
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Marian Leon Fulman był biskupem diecezji lubelskiej w latach 1918–1945. Gdy wybuchła druga wojna światowa został aresztowany przez Niemców pod fałszywym zarzutem posiadania broni. 27 listopada 1939 roku został skazany przez nazistowskie władze okupacyjne na karę śmierci. Karę tę zamieniono na ciężkie więzienie w Oranienburgu-Sachsenhausen. Biskup przebywał tam od 4 grudnia 1939 roku. Zapewne na skutek interwencji nuncjusza papieskiego w Berlinie bp Fulman został zwolniony z więzienia, ale nie pozwolono mu wrócić do Lublina. Został internowany w Nowym Sączu, gdzie od 25 lutego 1940 roku mieszkał na plebanii kościoła kolegiackiego pw. św. Małgorzaty. Miejscowy proboszcz ks. Roman Mazur przyjął go bardzo gościnnie. Biskup Fulman przez pięć lat kierował na odległość diecezją lubelską. Na plebanii miał do dyspozycji dwa pokoje. W jednym z nich została urządzona prywatna kaplica, gdzie biskup wyświęcił sekretnie 37 księży dla diecezji lubelskiej. W czasie internowania, 17 listopada 1943 roku, biskup obchodził jubileusz 25-lecia przyjęcia święceń biskupich. Z tej okazji otrzymał list gratulacyjny od papieża Piusa XII. W maju 1944 roku biskup uzyskał zgodę na powrót do swojej diecezji. Ze względu na podeszły wiek i zły stan zdrowia nie zdołał od razu rozpocząć powrotnej podróży. Wkrótce możliwość tę zablokowały działania na froncie wojennym. Opuścił Nowy Sącz dopiero 9 lutego 1945 roku. Umarł w Lublinie kilka miesięcy później. W 70. rocznicę tego wydarzenia odbyły się w Nowym Sączu uroczystości z udziałem arcybiskupa lubelskiego Stanisława Budzika i biskupa tarnowskiego Andrzeja Jeża. Na świadectwo pobytu bp. Fulmana w Nowym Sączu 9 lutego 2015 roku umieszczono wewnątrz budynku plebanii kościoła pw. św. Małgorzaty specjalną pamiątkową tablicę. Marian Leon Fulman was the bishop of the Lublin diocese in the years 1918–1945. When the Second World War broke out, he was arrested by the Nazis under the false accusations of possession of arms. On 27th November 1939 he was sentenced to death by the German authorities. The punishment was later changed into imprisonment in Oranienburg-Sachsenhausen. The Bishop remained there until 4th December 1939. Apparently thanks to the intervention by the papal nuncio in Berlin, Fulman was released from prison, yet not allowed to come back to Lublin. He was interned in Nowy Sącz, where he lived in the presbytery of the collegiate church of Saint Margaret until 25th February 1940. The local parish priest, Roman Mazur, welcomed him warmly. Bishop Fulman was the head of the Lublin diocese from a distance. He had two rooms at his disposal. In one of them he organized a private chapel, where he secretly ordained 37 priests for the Lublin diocese. During the period of his internment, on 17th November 1943, Fulman celebrated the 25th anniversary of his ordination as a bishop. On this occasion he received a letter of congratulation from the Pope Pius XII. In May 1944 the Bishop was granted permission to return to his diocese. Due to his old age and bad health he did not start the journey. Soon such a possibility was out of the question due to war activity on the front. It was not until 9th February 1945 that the Bishop left Nowy Sącz. He died in Lublin a few months later. The Archbishop of Lublin Stanisław Budzik and the Bishop of Tarnów Andrzej Jeż participated in the ceremony commemorating the 70th anniversary of the Fulman’s termination of the internment. On 9th February 2015 a special commemorative plaque was placed inside the presbytery of the collegiate church of Saint Margaret to commemorate Bishop Fulman’s stay in Nowy Sącz.
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The question of what it means to be a dramatic being is synonymous with a question who is the man of the media and what his existence is based on. The act of communication is a dramatic act rooted in human existence. Opening up to another person, to the drama scene and the passing timeforms the essence of dramatic existence. Each act of communication with reference to others is an opportunity to rediscover human deposit inscribed in his nature. Thearticle analyses the act of communication of a person in the philosophical perspective of Joseph Tischner’s drama. This analysis reveals the philosophical dimension of the process of communication
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The theoretical and empirical approaches showing that authenticity are the crucial concept of existentialism, postmodernism and humanistic psychology (be free, autonomic, unique, self-defining, self-creating and integrated, transcend enculturation, invent our own patterns, rise above circumstances, gather the past, present and future into the wholeness of our resolute selves, create our own meanings and goals). This article discuses especially the role of authenticity on religious maturity (Allport’s intrinsic orientation, Batson’s quest and Sandage’s dwelling and seeking). In this paper projection method were used to examine the functioning authenticity among artistically gifted young people and its role on religious maturity. Ss (N=296 aged 15–20 yrs) had to : 1) I’m sadly …, 2) I treasure, I like …, 3) Rational analysis…. The results of qualitative analysis revealed that the authenticity have two aspects: 1) autonomy (the freedom and loneliness, spontaneity, sensuality and creativity, 2) empathy (kindness, sensibility, emotional self-reflection, the acceptance of the imperfection,love and friendship). The findings confirmed validity of the authenticity on religious maturity as well as usefulness of considerations based on new theoretical suggestions in psychology (developmental framework of new concepts of the authenticity and religious maturity). Implications are considered for future research on dialectical understandings of religious maturity (a Wuthnow, Sandage, Shults dialectical model of spiritual development based on dwelling and seeking offers an interesting theoretical base for research)
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The author uses secular and ecclesiastic written sources to study the social, religious and political situation in the Roman Empire during the reign of the first Christian Emperor Constantine I the Great. That was the time when the Christian Church had finally institutionalized, had legalized itself at the clerical level and had gained weight, influence and rather significant spiritual power in the Late Greek-Roman society. The author reviews Constantine the Great's efforts to reform the church and religion, whereas he aimed to lay legal foundations enabling establishment of Caesaropapism Institute on the territory of the Empire and to subordinate the ecclesiastic power to the secular one.
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Prema biblijskom izvješću o stvaranju Bog je načinio jedno ljudsko biće kao praroditelja svega čovječanstva. Tako je neosporiva poruka Biblije da su sva ljudska bića članovi jedne obitelji. Nakon potopa u vrijeme Noe ta je poruka osnažena kada jedna obitelj otpočinje novu fazu povijesti. Bog svoju providnost proteže na sveopće čovječanstvo, bez ikakvih iznimaka.
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Review of: Mehmed AKŠAMIJA, "Pismo" (Sarajevo: Centar za dijalog - VesatijjaIslamske zajednice u BiH; 2017.) by: Franjo Topić
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The most important reason underlying the success of the Crusaders taking Antakya from Muslims and entering the Syrian and Palestinian territories is undoubtedly the division among the Muslims. This division was not only among the dynasties, but also the cities. The Muslim rulers of Damascus have sat up alliances with the Crusaders to protect themselves from neighboring Muslim rulers. Of course, this alliance was more of a role for the Crusaders, making it easier for them to hold on to the region, and strengthening them by acquiring new lands. Damascus's opposition posture caused power and time loosing to Muslim rulers, which served the Crusaders and to take the advantage of this controversy. Damascus continued its opponent position after Saladin (d. 589/1193), and quarrels within the dynasty caused the Crusaders to breathe deeply and as well as Jerusalem to fall into the hands of the Crusaders for a while again. During the Mamluks period, Damascus, who showed his opposing face for a short period of time, but afterwards he attained peace and obedience and also occupied comply with Rukn al-Dīn Baybars al-Bunduqdārī (d. 676/1277). In this article we will analyze the opposing stance of Damascus and his role in the Crusades.Summary: Pearl of Syria, Damascus has a rebellious and oppositional aspect as well. This feature of the city came into prominence further with the coming of the Crusaders to the region. Its oppositional stance and uncompromising aspect sometimes played into the hands of the Crusaders unintentionally. When the Crusaders first came to the surrounding of Antakya, the governor of Damascus, Duqāq did not provide the necessary support to Yaghisiyan who was encircled in Antakya by the Crusaders, due to his inexperience, jealousy and his hostile competition with his brother, Ridvan who is emir of Aleppo. Thus, the Crusaders used this opportunity.Atabeg of Duqāq, Tughtakīn who started to command the city after the death of Duqāq did not support especially Mawdūd who struggled against the Crusaders in Urfa, adequately. Besides, he was accused of getting Mawdūd killed by another separatist power of the region, the Assassins in the great mosque of the city. On top of it, he allied with the Crusaders, because he was troubled with the commander Porsuk sent to the region by the Sultan of Great Saljūq Empire, Mohammed Tapar. He caused the heroic warrior, Porsuk to be defeated near Tel-Dānis by the Crusaders and to die in Al Jazīrah after a short time.Soon after the above events, ‘Imāduddīn Zengī focused on Damascus and tried to establish the Islamic unity. The son of the ruler Böri, called Ismail became isolated because of the poor administration in the city. He resorted to inviting Zangī to the city. However, Ismail was killed by the opponents before the arrival of Zangī, so no result could be accomplished. Later, Zangī focused on the city again. Although he mercilessly treated the resisters in Ba’lebek after occupying there to demotivate the community of Damascus, he faced the serious resistance of the forces of Damascus. While Zangī spent all his energy to Damascus, the king of Jerusalem, Foulque improved his policy for Syria to some extent and could reestablish communication with the states of the Crusaders. The community Damascus helped the Crusaders and eased their work unintentionally once more.The Mamlūk called Uner began to govern Damascus on behalf of the forces of Bori who lost their influence in the city. Uner who developed a close relationship with the Crusaders to prevent the dominance of Zangī in the city did not hesitate to send an envoy to them. He promised to give Banyas to the Crusaders in return for moving Zangī away from Damascus. After the Franks accepted the proposal of Uner, Zangī remained in between the forces of Damascus and the Crusaders and was obliged to recede to Aleppo. In this way, the Crusaders occupied the castle of Banyas. Several locations until Buzaa were seized by the Crusaders in Antakya who found the opportunity.Zangī was martyred in front of Jaabar castle in 541/1146, so his son Nūr al-dīn became the new ruler of Damascus. Nevertheless, the following incidents caused Nūr al-dīn and Uner to get closer to each other, and the Crusaders had to move away from Damascus. First, the administrator of Havran under the control of Uner rose against his governor and turned to the Crusaders. Besides, the Second Crusade in Damascus contributed to the association of Damascus and Aleppo for a while. Following the elimination of both endangers, the association of Damascus and Aleppo resumed. Uner established a close contact with the Crusaders and made a two-year agreement with them to prevent Nūr al-dīn from seizing the city. Uner died after some time, but almost nothing changed. The new governor of the city Mucīruddin ‘Abaq kept the association of the Crusaders. An operation of Nūr al-dīn against the city was averted with the help of the Crusaders again. Mucīruddin got closer to the Crusaders after their help. Their close relationship was strengthened with the mutual visits of the committees of the Crusaders and Damascus. The Artuquid governor Timurtāsh decided to organize a military expedition to Jerusalem after a little while. However, Mucīruddin who worried about the possible dissolution of their association with the Crusaders stopped supporting him, so Timurtāsh failed in his expedition. Mucīruddin improved his relations with the Crusaders further and started to pay tribute to them following their invasion of ‘Asqalān’s in 548/1153. Even, ‘Abaq offered officially his commitment to Jerusalem. Even though the spoilt Crusaders plundered and destroyed the surrounding of Damascus, they kept the administrators of Damascus with them. Moreover, they went further and offered them to give Ba’lebek to them in return for moving Nūr al-dīn away from Damascus. Such acts provoked the community of Damascus who opposed to the dynasty of Bori in the city afterward. Nūr al-dīn welcomed this opportunity and seized Damascus in 549/1154 by means of the public without giving any chance to coming of the Crusaders. Damascus was governed by Nūr al-dīn for approximately twenty years. A disagreement arose among the community of Zangī in the city after the decease of Nūr al-dīn in 569/1174, thus leading to the dominance of Ṣalādīn Ayyubi in the city. The Ayyubids began to govern Damascus, but internal conflicts started among them with the death of Ṣalādīn in 589/1193. Similarly, Damascus was the focus of these conflicts. The Ayyubids in Egypt were the other party of the disagreement. Unfortunately, the Crusaders benefited from such rivalries. When the senior member of the family al-Adil dominated Damascus in 592/1196, the Crusaders who increased their domain had seized Beirut. Egypt and Damascus got closed temporarily during the Fifth Crusade. After the Crusaders withdrew from Damietta, two brothers, al-Muazzam and al-Kᾱmil fought with each other again. Damascus and Egypt chose the Khwarezmian dynasty and Friedrich in Sicilia as ally, respectively. Unexpected death of al-Muazzam during the preparations for the Sixth Crusade resulted in the siege of Damascus by the forces of Egypt. Friedrich reached Akkā over the course of the siege. al-Kᾱmil who played for time to seize Damascus delivered Jerusalem to the Crusaders. Later, the internal conflicts about the new dynasty which arose in Damascus weakened the Ayyubids and made the Crusaders advantageous. Finally, Damascus found tranquility with the dominance of Baybars in the city.
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In the article, author presents a short outline, through a historical perspective, of social status and the rights of women in various phases of development of the Islamic tradition, thereby trying to discern original Islamic stance from later cultural additions. In the beginning, the status of women in preislamic Arabia is briefly considered. Then, focusing on the key moments, starting with the Quranic revelation and the life of early Islamic community, to forming of the Sharia corpus, to modern emergence of Islamic feminism, article briefly illustrates historical development of the Islamic approach to women’s rights. The status of women in Islamic tradition stands out as a prime example of the complex interrelation between culture and religion.
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The paper deals with problem of employing the representations of gender relations as a “soft power” resource in international arena. The authors examine how contemporary media discuss the issues whether the image of Russia as a bulwark of traditional values can be used as Russian “soft power” resource in the international arena. The image of Russia as the guardian of family and religious values plays a noticeable role in Russia’s identity politics. At the same time it meets criticism which points out that the idea of restoration of the traditional values, first, is archaic and aimed against gender equality and, second, serves as an element of propaganda and features as a part of the “proxy war” that Russia wages against the West.
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