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Hungary’s Conversion to ChristianityThe article presents the background to Hungary’s conversion to Christianity in the 970s during the reign of Duke Géza, as well as the subsequent activities undertaken by missionaries to promote the new faith. The first attempts to Christianise Hungarians were made by the Byzantine Empire in the middle of the tenth century, but after the defeat of the Hungarian troops at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, the Magyars leaders made their way towards Latin Christianity. Upon Duke Géza’s request addressed to Emperor Otto I, Bruno of St. Gallen came to Hungary and baptised not only the Duke’s family, but also several thousand Hungarians. Subsequent missionary activities were carried out by the following missionaries: Adalbert, Bruno of Querfurt and Gellért. Hungarians showed much favour to Gellért – a Venetian martyr who suffered death in the pagan uprising in 1046.
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Christianity came to the Bohemia through neighboring Moravia and Bavaria, which from the end of the 9th century began to play an increasingly important role. As shown by the results of historical and archaeological research, up to the middle of the 10th century its range was limited to the domain of Přemyslid' (Praga's Basin). The spreading of a new religion was the result of actions taken by Wenceslas I and Boleslav I. However, the conduct of systematic and organized missionary work was hampered by the lack of sufficient clergy, schools and own bishopric (973). Much more slowly, however, was the change in the mentality and shaping of the religious culture of the population under the influence of the new religion. In the Czech State, this process was visible until the forties of the 11th century and – similarly to other countries of the region – it was also dependent on the progress in the construction of a state organization. In historical and philological studies, attention is paid to the cultural characteristic of the Přemyslid' family, although there is no convincing evidence of the continuity of the cultural and religious heritage of Slavonic liturgy and script in the Bohemia. The position of the Czech principality in the political and cultural realities of Europe of the early Middle Ages and the possession of two canonized members of the dynasty (Saint Ludmila and Saint Wenceslas) provided the Přemyslid' family with a high position among the ruling houses that shaped the history and culture of Central Europe.
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The article analyses the development of the holy war in East Rome from its beginning until the 11th century. The article takes the stance that it is meaningless what the official religious doctrine was when the soldiers themselves believed and followed the doctrine of holy war which promised a place in heaven for all fallen soldiers.
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The spread of Christianity in the lands of Kyivan Rus caused radical, but not rapid, changes in the religious, philosophical, and mental worldviews of contemporary society. Funeral rites were a significant factor in which the feature of the spiritual transformation of local societies was reflected. The proposed study is devoted to the peculiarities of the Christian funeral rite and ceremony in the lands of Kyivan Rus’ and the Galician-Volhynian state, which are covered in written sources of the time. Therefore, the upper chronological date of the study is the XIV century. Their elaboration and systematization led to the construction of the article in a linear way – starting with pre-death, and then post-mortem preparations, directly funeral and memorial service. The analysis and generalization of the funeral rite, characteristic for the Christian Orthodox tradition as a whole, is carried out. At the same time, their separate local elements are highlighted. Some comparisons and parallels between the Rus’ and Byzantine funeral traditions were made.
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In the 6th century CE, the Sasanian empire was divided into four administrative units already during the second reign of Kavad I, however, it was during the time of Khosrov Anushirvan that these regions were transformed into the military-administrative units – kʻustaks, where the administrative power belonged to the padgospan and the military to the spahbed. The northern kʻustak or kʻust-i-Kapkoh was included the marzpanates: Armenia (divided into the three military-administrative units – Tanutirakan gund, Vaspurakan gund, Syunikʻ), Georgia, Albania and the šahrs: Adharbādhakān, Gīlān, Dlmunkʻ, Zanjān, Ghazvīn, Ṭabaristān and Ray. This paper reviews the administrative of the northern kʻustak based on the Classical Armenian, Arabic and Persian primary sources.
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This paper provides an overview of the importance of dwarf figures/jesters in Ancient Indian history and society. There are numerous dwarf-like figures depicted in ancient Indian temples. These little figurines would have not only filled the area and add decorative value but also, they have a small but significant place in iconography. A dwarf-like figure, the Vidushaka, who was a brahmin with a tuft on his head and a staff in his hand, was found on the walls of Ajanta and in the Natyashastra text. His occupation is to light the stressful environment by making the court laughing. It goes without saying how valuable the Vidushaka is as a kind of entertainment in ancient India. The objective of this research is to look at how the Vidushaka (jester) had been contributing to the ‘entertainment industry’ of ancient India and how they have been portrayed through out the history (from ancient to medieval times). This would also allow us to discover that jesters were not only adept at entertaining others with amusing jokes, but also able to express himself on the oddities of human life.
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The Kazakh folk epic talks about the heroic deeds and life of nomadic tribes, being the historical and cultural heritage of the nation, which has been passed from mouth to mouth for centuries, thereby preserving national memory and contributing to the maintenance of patriotic feelings. The purpose of this article is not only to consider the Kazakh epic in the traditional vein of narrating about the historical past, but also to emphasize its ethnographic and genealogical value. By analyzing epic poetry, folk songs and folklore in general, as well as examining fragments of individual works, the authors recreate a holistic picture of the genealogical basis of the folk epic. The article compares the differences in the traditions of the Kazakh epic poetry of the 16th-18th and 19th centuries, which are observed, first of all, in the compositional structure, the subject of the story, the worldview in general. According to the results of the study, it was determined that the genealogical basis of the Kazakh folk epic lies in a certain archetype of a hero, the only son born to become a defender of the honor and dignity of the nation. At the same time, special attention is paid to describing its origin through a poetic description of its family tree. From this follows the complex genre of the epic chronicle, which has artistic and historical value and is an example of spiritual heritage. This study is of practical use for specialists in the field of history, literature, ethnography and genealogy.
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The naming and identification of women in historical sources, especially in the chancery documents of the Teutonic Order (hereafter - DO) of the Middle Ages and the early modern period, constitutes a phenomenon that is in need of research from the point of view of many academic disciplines. The topic is not only the subject of research in onomastics, but also concerns general linguistics, history, sociology, anthropology and others. In the present paper, it is attempted to approach this topic in two ways. On the one hand, it is interesting to see whether the women in the historical documents are identifiable by their possibly recorded names; on the other hand, the question arises as to how their social status and the naming or identification of women correlate.
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The article considers the phenomenon of marginalization as the ability of the subject to activate the internal processes of worldview in the process of overcoming the fear of contemplation of alternative coordinate systems, inconsistent worlds of values and various cultural programs. It is stated that being in a marginal state is a conscious choice, which is dictated by the need of the subject to take an active position in life. It is determined that the main feature of the medieval world is social statics, which ensured the stability of the world. In conditions of non-reflexive self-perception, the processes of self-identification are not activated. At the same time, marginality is positioned as a difference in relation to the inviolability of the universe of social hierarchy in a conformal and comfortable social structure, as a deviation from the stable state of the system. The study used such methods: analytical - to determine the conceptual approaches to the study of the idea of marginality in cultural studies, systemic - to determine the integrity of the phenomenon of marginality in Western European culture; historical - in the reconstruction of the process of formation of the core of culture in each historical period of Western European culture. It is determined that the marginal groups that opposed their way of life and system of values to the medieval society are the early Christian community, the monastic order, the heretical sect, and so on. Their common features are: the equality of group members, anonymity, external equality, the absence of clearly defined private property, the maximization of a virtuous lifestyle both in spiritual programs and in their implementation. Physical or spiritual searches as the basis of self-organization, being chosen by God, distancing from secular institutions have become one of the determining factors of the cultural marginality of modernity in the Middle Ages.
More...Rituals before and after death in the Middle Ages (An introduction)
The question of death is essential at the level of individuals as well as society, from primitive tribes to high theology, ethics or philosophy. The Latin name for death—exitus letalis (natural departure)—implicitly suggests that death in our culture does not mean a definitive end but a mere “departure.” Based on the funeral rituals and myths found in nearly all cultures, almost none considered death to be a definitive end. What part of us departs, to where, in what way? What transcends our death? People in each historical period have had to address questions related to death and in time, developed a whole order of different rituals, ceremonies, myths and ideas embodied in art. No other period has been so permeated by thoughts of death as the Middle Ages. Being a part of everyday life, death was omnipresent, perceived as an inseparable part of the world of the living and the rituals that accompanied the dying person, the burial as well as requiem rites, were not an individual matter, but a societal event. The main aim of the present issue is to examine various aspects of predeath and funeral rituals in the Middle Ages within the context of Central Europe.
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Funeral ceremonies of the Hungarian nobility in the late medieval Kingdom of Hungary are the central focus of this study. Due to the relative lack of reports preserved from the Hungarian environment, the current paper is centred on three specific noble funerals that took place in late medieval Hungary. The funeral ceremonies of John Pongrác of Dengeleg, Ulrich of Cilli and Hedwig of Cieszyn were duly reported by contemporary authors and therefore comprise the knowledge base for this text. The aim of this study is to investigate the course of funeral ceremonies, the symbolic level of mourning towards the nobility and observe any common and varying elements. The current paper also discusses the purpose of several customary features of the burials (processions, clothes, colours etc.), as well as how they were prepared and organised. Moreover, the idea of what a proper nobleman’s funeral should look like according to contemporaries as well as the intentions of the scribes as to how to inform about the death or burial of the members of Hungarian nobility are also presented.
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This article presents the state of research on the military service of knights and townspeople of Upper Lusatia and their armament during the Luxembourg reign. These considerations include not only the presentation of scientific achievements in this field, but also the justification of the intention to address this issue. The paper is a draft in nature. In terms of quantity, the source material is rich, although in terms of quality it looks less impressive. The richest archive collections can be found in Germany. The archives in Poland and the Czech Republic are also noteworthy, although they are not very large. Most attention was paid to this issue by German researchers, although the problem was often on the sidelines of main considerations. The most valuable studies were conducted by prominent Upper Lusatian historians Hermann Knothe and Richard Jecht. In Poland, the problem is not widely considered, although the research by Mateusz Goliński and Robert Heś is worthy of attention. Despite the fact that studies on this issue are not very well developed, it is justified to work on a potential publication on this subject. This need stems from the growing interest in Upper Lusatia and the inspiring works of medieval historians from Wrocław.
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The 14th century was one of the peak centuries in the history of Bulgarian Orthodox music. Two factors defined what was new in its development at the time: the affirmation of the new version of the Jerusalem Typikon and of the hesychasm. Both factors are conditioned by one goal – the unity of the Christian faith with functioning strong institutions. The affirmation of the new version of the Jerusalem Typikon led to the synthesis of the monastic and cathedral practices. This synthesis, in turn, led to the compilation of a new class of notated book, which included much of the repertoire previously transmitted exclusively in an oral away, and the establishment of a single notation system displacing the pre-existing such systems. The hesyhasm was revived for spiritual renewal of Christian values. The hesychasts paid special attention to the word. The “divine” beauty of the latter was sought. The style of “weaving of words” was developed. The aim was to return the “purity” of the sacred texts lost during the Latin occupation of Byzantium, as well as to update the liturgical texts according to the norms of the new Typikon. As examples of the affirmation of the new Jerusalem Typikon and of the hesychast ideas in music, the activity of one of the greatest medieval musicians, St. John Kukuzeles, about whose Bulgarian origin arguments are given, is discussed along with the established “kalophonic” or “beautiful-sounding” repertoire, an analogue of the style of “weaving of words”, and some particularly significant chants, such as those designated “Bulgarian”, defending the prestige of orthodoxy and testifying to the Bulgarian creative power. The chants in the Palauzov’s copy of the Synodikon of Tsar Boril, a re-actualized book as a result of the two councils against the heretics organized by Tsar Ivan Alexander, are also discussed.
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Empress Jelena Nemanjić Asen, wife of the Serbian Emperor Stefan Dušan (1331–1355), mother of Emperor Stefan Uroš V (1355–1371), and sister of Bulgarian Emperor Ivan Alexander (1331–1371), is the first empress from the Nemanjić dynasty. Jelena‘s parents were the despot Stracimir and Keraca, the sister of Tsar Mihailo Šišman. Her marriage to king Stefan Dušan additionally strengthened the king’s ruling legitimacy, as through his marriage with Jelena, he intermarried with Roman ruling families. Her role in governing the empire during the reign of King Dušan and after his death, when she ruled independently in Serres, as well as her role in shaping the visual culture of medieval Serbia, is extremely important. Jelena was the only woman who sojourned on the Athos, which also testifies to her position and importance, but also to the respect that the monks of Mount Athos had for her. She sponsored the monks and monasteries on Mount Athos, and she also supported the Catholic monasteries in Dubrovnik. Tradition also attributes to the empress the erection of the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God in Nerodimlje, near the village of Uroševac, where emperor Uroš was buried. However, her most important endowment is the Monastery of Mateič, probably built as her burial church. The monastery was an expression of her private piety and her personal connection with the Mother of God, who was her protector. Helena‘s endowment also had a political dimension, which, like her private piety, is reflected in the architecture of the katholikon and in the program of frescoes. The Monastery of Mateič, has its prototype in the architecture of Constantinople churches such as the Holy Apostles and the Monastery of Christ Pantokrator, but also in the Monastery of the Holy Archangels near Prizren, the endowment of Emperor Stefan Dušan. This connection between Constantinople and Serbia does not testify to a blind repetition of the ground plan of a church but to the cultural and ideological transfer of visual patterns from the Roman Empire to the countries of the Roman cultural circle through cross-cultural connections in which women played a key role. The painted program includes many cycles, such as the Great Feasts, the Passion of Christ, Christ’s Miracles, Christ’s post-resurrection appearances, the Life of the Virgin, the Akathistos of the Virgin, the cycle dedicated to the Ecumenical Councils, as well as the scenes from the lives of saints: Archangel Michael, John the Baptist, Demetrios, Anthony the Great, and Elijah. A vast number of saints in the form of busts and standing figures are painted in the naos and narthex. There are several scenes and cycles that rarely (or never) appear in churches from the time of the Nemanjić, such as the cycle of the Acts and the Martyrdom of the Apostles, the legend of King Abgar, as well as the Genealogical Tree of the Nemanjić, Komnenian, and Assen dynasties. Jelena‘s ktetorship and the painting of the Mateič Monastery testify to her ruling ideology, but above all to her private piety and personal relationship with the Mother of God, who is her intercessor and protector during the Last Judgment, as well as to Jelena‘s hope in salvation.
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In 451, after the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, Chalcedonism spread in Armenia, especially in Tayk. With its spread, Georgian penetrated there having an impact on the historic and cultural life and the ethnic image of the region. A part of the Armenians, breaking away from the Armenian Church, became Georgian-speaking. The study aims to analyze the process and the ethno-religious environment resulted from the impact of the new confession. In Tayk, a bishop’s seat was founded as early as the 4th century by Gregory the Illuminator, and it continued to be a diocese of the Armenian Apostolic Church, which is testified by the fact that the names of the bishops of Tayk have been remembered at church meetings etc. until the 9th — 10th centuries. Chalcedonism and Georgian writing and literature rooted in the region as late as the 9th — 10th centuries, when the Bagratunis, the local ruling elite, accepted the Chalcedonian confession. As a result, the population of Tayk and their rulers were called ‘Georgians’ or ‘Iberians’ in both Armenian and foreign records. In Tayk, even church ceremonies were performed in Georgian, though Armenian was also used.
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The paper departs from the finding that in some medieval documents Carasova inhabitants, who are currently Roman-Catholic, were often referred to as schismatic. As a result, i focus in this paper on the study of Carasova customs, aiming to identify characteristics that would confirm and reinforce the validity of the above-mentioned finding. The paper briefly presents and analyses certain rituals and ceremonies (or a part of these rituals and ceremonies) pertaining to the religious life, as well as habits associated with traditional occupations, which contain hints that can be used in a convincing argument about the belonging of Carasova inhabitants to the Orthodox denomination during the Middle Ages. At the same time, illustrating how the traces of the ancient Orthodoxy are reflected in the dialect spoken by Carasova inhabitants, the paper consolidates the thesis with the help of linguistic (lexical) evidence.
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The article presents the current state of research on a fragment of the history of the Polish military – the history of the army, i.e. land army units of the Polish Armed Forces existing in the years 1940–1947 in the West and subordinated to the legal authorities of the Republic of Poland in London, as well as prospects for the development of this research. The author focused primarily on non-serial publications which have appeared since 1945 until today. Discussing the state of research, he presented the achievements of both emigration and national historiography. In the latter, he distinguished two periods: before and after 1990. He also discussed the achievements of Western historiography in this field. The author concentrated on the most important trends in historiography so far and on the predominant trends in editing sources, memoirs, biographies and monographs, which he grouped thematically. Author also mentioned the most important archives, both Polish and foreign, in which sources necessary for the reconstruction of the history of the military of the Polish Armed Forces can be found. As far as scientific journals are concerned, the author just mentioned a few of the most important ones published in exile and two leading historical and military ones published in Poland. He also pointed to the most important Polish and foreign archives, which contain sources necessary for the reconstruction of the history of the Polish Armed Forces. The author also characterized briefly the potential of the particular scientific circles that conduct professional research on the history of the Polish Armed Forces. Discussing the prospects for the development of this research, he pointed out the suggested directions and topics that remain undiscovered. He stressed that there are still many areas awaiting scientific exploration. Casting light on the results of the investigations, including new findings, opens up the possibility of writing many articles, including source papers, because many aspects of the functioning of the Polish Armed Forces are still unexplored. It is also a field for many monographs and syntheses.
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Blessed Virgin Mary played a prominent role in the history of the Teutonic Order. We meet her even in the name of this religious corporation - Order of the Hospital of Saint Mary of the Teutonic House in Jerusalem. Referring to the Mother of God was an important aspect of self-identity of the Teutonic Knights. The paper provides a number of examples of Marian worship: Marian feasts, altars, images and chasubles used in liturgical Marian celebrations. They are presented in the light of preserved inventories of chapels which existed in monastic houses of the Teutonic Order.
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Ovaj se rad temelji na odabranim dijelovima povijesti glazbe srednjega vijeka. Kroz rad ćemo vidjeti da je Crkva, kao nositeljica zapadnoeuropske kulture, i u glazbi udarila temelje za kasniji razvoj te vrste umjetnosti. Papa Grgur Veliki i Guido iz Arezza bili su prvi znanstvenici koji su svojim doprinosom utrli Europi put k glazbenoj pismenosti. Upoznat ćemo se i s osnovnim crkvenim instrumentom – orguljama i prvim načinima pjevanja i obrazovanjem unutar Crkve. Svakako, na koncu članka dotaknut ćemo se glavnog bogoslužja katoličke crkvene mise i njezinih nepromjenjivih dijelova koji su bili inspiracija za skladatelje – od renesanse do danas.
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