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In this study, the social groups that make up the social fabric of the Ancient Greek society during its dark ages and the appertaining political structure is investigated. In Ancient Greece, pre-police social life was based on small groups of people bound by blood ties and kinship ties, and socio-political activities in such groups continued in different forms until a concept of “community” emerged. The Dark Age (BC. XI-VII. Centuries) which is considered to have begun with the fall of the Mycenaeans, covers the years in which ancient Greek civilization has been in turmoil for a long time. In the dark age, Ancient Greek society, like all ancient communities, was based on the ethos of “the same sibling, the same religion, and the same ancestor”, and these communities were mainly classified as oikos-genos-phratri-phyle groups. These units, which are usually products of religious ties, blood ties, military or political associations, have maintained their existence and significance for a long time, and they set precedent for the formation of ancient Greek society and city-states called the police.
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Following the widespread use of coins and their penetration into cultures, there has been a gradual transformation in its main function due to social, political, religious and individual reasons, and it started serving different purposes. A coin’s metal, form, iconography and the inscription on it are the main factors that determine whether it is going to be used as an amulet- which is believed to protect the bearer against evil, evil eye and other dangerous external effects- or into a talisman-which is believed to bring the bearer happiness and success. Although it is easy to observe the phases through which a coin turns into an amulet or talisman, it is relatively difficult to identify the underlying motivation due to the individual nature of the issue. It is a common practice that the coins which are turned into amulets by piercing or adding a handle are generally chosen among demonetized coins with non-purchasing power or counterfeit coins. These pierced or handled coins are carried on the body as necklace, earring, wristband or bangle so as to benefit from their protecting features. In the case of coins made of precious metals, it is a common practice to turn them into jewelry for the noble and elite class with the same anticipations.
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In the Persians, Aeschylus implies that Xerxes’ tragic downfall is caused by his violent arrogance. But the question of what exactly Xerxes’ hybris was is a point at issue. In this paper, after roughly presenting some important approaches to this question, I will try to indicate that there is a close connection between Xerxes’ hybris and the reason for behind his desire to enslave the Greeks. In what follows, I will defend the view that the essence of his hybris consists in the self-indulgent misuse of his authority in a futile aim merely to aggrandize himself.
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When in 1879 a mining advisor Dr. Em. Titze, who came to Srebrenica during the geological study of Bosnia, found, however, that there was a common tradition about the former rudokopa, which was somewhere there, but no one was able to say where the ore was dug. Dr. Tize, who saw the land for a quick look, did not find any traces of the old mining, no pits, no halves of metal and ore. Through spacious trois points with different streams in the area, where there were up to 13 percent of lead with silver, it was possible to judge only that in the vicinity of the Srebrenica baths and melted lead coins and silver was excavated from them.
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An interdisciplinary approach to the research of gemmology and archaeology has discovered a variety of information which simultaneously enrich the achievements of both disciplines. This paper highlights the importance of gems, especially in the Ancient World. From the gemmological aspect, a gem is natural if all of its natural features are preserved. Also, we describe gems with some of their original characteristics modified in certain treatments, most frequently the change of natural gem colour. Furthermore, we show how the imitations of gems are created with the use of natural or artificial materials. Nicolo is taken as an example. It is onyx, of specific bluish white upper layer and very dark brown or black lower layer. It is assumed that nicolo can be identified with the antique stone that Pliny the Elder called aegyptilla. Nicolo became popular stone for intaglio carving at the time of the Empire, especially since the Augustan era, and was continuously used until the late antiquity. At the same time, imitations of nicolo intaglio in glass were produced which, with the colour (light blue and black combined) and the shape, followed the changes of the cutting techniques of the original intaglio. The main changes of shape were shown in a variety of nicolo cutting methods, with one or both colours of the stone being visible on the surface. When the edges are cut at right angles, only the upper blue layer of stone is visible on the surface of the intaglio. Nicolo intaglio with the edges cut at acute angles can contrast the colours of both layers of the stone. As a result, the blue colour in the centre, always containing a picture, is surrounded by darker colours of the lower layer of the stone. Glass imitations of nicolo intaglio were found in the combinations of light blue and dark blue. Dark blue colour is not typical for natural nicolo or natural onyx in general. With the "sugar-acid" treatment, the onyx of grey and white colours was changed to resemble nicolo onyx, and probably this atypical colour combination of different blue shades was imitated in glass. It is believed that precious stone has a supernatural protective power manifested in its specific substance and its invisible energy. The long continuity of making and using nicolo intaglio and their imitations points to the importance of this precious stone as well as its imitation. We would like to point out that an imitation, same as natural precious stone, possesses the equal supernatural power. A philosophical concept of sympatheia was taken as an example, according to which "likeness produces similarity", meaning that the objects which were once in contact continue to impact each other at a distance, even though physical contact was interrupted. Thus, according to the philosophical concept of sympatheia, the glass imitation shows resemblance, i.e. a glass intaglio that imitates nicolo, is similar to nicolo stone. The picture message which is always present in intaglio, was obtained by imprint of an original precious stone. Thus, the original precious stone, together with the picture, was in contact with a medium used to produce glass intaglio, and therefore, even at distance and indirectly, conveys the acting power of the original substance. Consequently, the imitation possesses all the invisible energy features as the original. Certainly, this assumption requires further research, primarily based on the gemmological analysis of stylistic and chronological typology of the museum artefacts and the identification of precious stone imitations, with equally important information from written sources as well as philosophical and anthropological studies.
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The need for illumination has been one of the most important basic necessities of mankind since Antiquity. With the presence of fire, this need has brought some requirements and people have begun to seek solutions. By bringing the fire under control, it has enabled the emergence of means of illumination that will facilitate the daily life of those who want to carry it with them. According to the term technology and in the direction of people's desire, different lighting tools have been used and they have developed over time. In ancient times the first used lighting fixture is worn. Then he is followed by candlesticks and oil lamps. Candlesticks and candles are more common and have long been used. The lamps, which differ in terms of material, technique, form and composition according to the rotation they produce, are also in direct proportion to the economic situation of the people using it. The lamps that make up the subject of this scientific research are the lighting tools made of ceramic material and dated to the Byzantine period. Four ceramic lamps subject to research are exhibited in the museum exhibition. The topic of the study on the subject, which was mentioned in our master's thesis, has been studied in detail in the article of this scientific research. During the operation, the necessary photographs were taken of the lamps and their drawings were documented in accordance with the technical drawing rules without using any drawing program with 1/1 scale from our side. These ceramic lamps mentioned; material, technique, form and composition of the period and to introduce it to the scientific community by considering the period characteristics.
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The article deals with the use of masks at the beginning of our era in the mysterial cults (the ancient Egyptian religion, the cult of Cybele and Attis, Mithraism). The basis for research are brief references to masks in Greek and Roman literature and pictorial and archaeological sources. Masks appeared in the rituals of religion, that claimed to Eastern origin but reformed to facilitate their perception of the inhabitants of the ancient world; mysteries were part of this adaptation. We suppose that the masks performed several functions in these cults: they showed their connection with the alien tradition and the special oriental wisdom which contained in them; they created a new system of social relations based on the degree of initiation; mask could help to change the state of human consciousness; finally, people in masks could feel of belonging to a large community, whose head was a god. We should also mention that the masks were associated with deities associated with the world beyond the grave.
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The State Hermitage Museum holds a fascinating collection of small relief items made of whitepainted plaster (gypsum or gesso) that once were used for decorating wooden sarcophagi from ancient Bosporan Kingdom. They date back to mid-1st – mid-2nd centuries AD, and originate from the Greek necropoli excavated in the necropoli of Pantikapaion and Nymphaion. In the Hermitage collection of such appliqué numerous are theatric masks different in peculiarities of shape and painted details. In the author’s opinion, certain decorative characteristics may correlate with their significance as it could be possibly referred to by the ancients themselves. Making masks with either painted or carved eyes and mouths by all means depends upon various devices and methods of production including different moulds. Still, one of the possible interpretations of the pictorial varieties lies in probable intention to reinforce the apotropaic strength of a piece (open mouth), on the one hand, while on the other (closed mouth) — to endow it with the special sense normally related to the figures of Hermes Psychopompos or Harpocrates, the god of Silence. The idea of pictorial alternative to the renowned and wide-spread gesture of silence in the moment of anticipation to the deity — signum harpocraticum — requires more arguments deployed. Nevertheless, in the most preliminary form the author expresses this assumption, appealing to the images of the so-called “temple boy” and “winged Pedagogue” his right hand put up in call for silence, those found among the same sets of plaster and terracotta reliefs, whose meaning is close to the general idea of sacred silence. The article is illustrated with several photos of the appliqué’s samples from the Hermitage collection.
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The restitution coins struck during the reign of Titus, the earliest coins in the category of nummi restituti, commemorated Titus’s eminent predecessors, the Roman Senate as a political institution, as well as some types of early Caesarean coins. Arguably, this restitution coinage played a role in disseminating the ideology of the power of Titus, and it served his self-presentation, thus contributing to the image of a ruler who took power in a legal way. On the one hand, the restitution coins in question emphasized Titus’s status and role, consisting in: providence (Providentia), commitment to the State, prevention of domestic conflicts, victoriousness (the coins show him as a continuator of the early viri triumphales tradition), concern for peace (Pax), and freedom (Libertas). One the other hand, the restitution coins underscored the political succession to the throne (Providentia). Owing to his attributes, perpetuated in the restitution coins, and to the legitimacy of his rule, the Caesar guaranteed unbroken continuity of the State.
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It is not easy to find interest in soldiers and army issues in the source literature which is devoted to Plutarch. However, considering only the statistical point of view, it should be noted that Parallel Lives is a huge base of information related to ancient soldiers. The goal of the presented article is to recreate the image of a soldier created by Plutarch in his works, especially in Parallel Lives. Although military commanders were also soldiers, the interest is focused on regular participants of military efforts who are considered as an army in general, especially because Plutarch often confronts them with main characters of his biographies. The article is an effort to find an answer to the following questions: Was Plutarch interested in military issues? Do Parallel Lives create a consistent image of a soldier, or are we just presented with some disconnected observations considering different historical conditions which are continuously changing? Which of the soldier’s types from the ancient literature are dominant in Parallel Lives and thus, which of the soldiers was immortalized by Plutarch?
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Little is known about Sirmium in the period from the death of Theodoric the Great (526) to Justinian’s war against the Ostrogoths (535). So far the simplest and most obvious method of analyzing the surviving written sources, i.e. literal interpretation, has not been used for reconstructing the history of this city. Instead, for unclear reasons, it is almost commonly accepted that in 530 the city was attacked by the Gepids. The Ostrogoths supposedly repelled the enemy and their future king, Vitiges, distinguished himself in the battle. However, on the basis of the written sources (Cassiodorus and Procopius of Caesarea), a completely different reconstruction of the events is possible. It is more likely that there were two wars for Sirmium between the Gepids and the Ostrogoths: the first one in 526–527 and the second in 533–534. An examination of the historical context confirms that these two conflicts could have been consistent with other events and, just as importantly, enables us to explain the Ostrogoths’ complete inactivity in the face of the Frankish invasion.
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The lands controlled by the army are frequently described by scholars as the ‘military territory’, ‘Militärland’, ‘territoire militaire/legionnaire’ or ‘militärisches Nutzland’, while epigraphic evidence uses the terms prata or territorium. Their size, function, and legal status are the subject of debate among scholars. In this paper some questions are raised concerning these lands, understood in three basic ways; (1) the sector of a border remaining under the military control of a legion (borderland), (2) the area or areas used and controlled by the unit within the entire province (military territory), and (3) the territory outside the camp (legionary territory). Following this, the author discusses problems regarding military and civil administration, civil settlements near the military bases, settlement duality, the organization of the extramural space and its limitation, as well as the role of some public buildings and religious features.
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The purpose of the article is to present the psychological aspects of defending a city in Late Antiquity, with particular focus on the role of civilians during a siege, according to the military treatises. The analysis covered mostly fragments of Book IV of Vegetius’ work, Book X of Strategikon and passages from Syrianus Magister. The results clearly indicate that the authors of treatises knew well the significance of the soldiers’ morale and mental strength in a siege, seeing them as key components in ensuring the success of military operations and preventing the surrender of the defended positions. The analyzed writings also emphasize the involvement of civilians, who were supposed to not only seek protection from soldiers, but actually had a clearly defined role in the defense efforts. The authors also understood that civilians, much more vulnerable to external stress factors than soldiers, were untrustworthy and more likely to give in to despair, which was to be prevented by various tricks meant to manipulate their psychology.
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Principles of the troops dislocation and providing for the upkeep of the armies of the barbarian kingdoms in the Roman West in the 5th and 6th centuries are still under discussion. In the mid-19th century E. T. Gaupp claimed that the basis of barbarian settlement was assigning them one third of the cultivated land in provinces they settled. More than a century later, W. Goff art and J. Durliat completely denied and modified Gaupp’s theory. In their opinion, the upkeep of the barbarian foederati was to be provided for from one-third of the provincial fiscal revenue allocated to the maintenance of the armed forces. However, a more thorough analysis of the source material proves it impossible to develop any universal pattern of settlement for all barbarian tribes. Military settlement of Vandals in Africa escapes the framework of the Gaupp model, but also that of the Goff art and Durliat model. King Gaiseric had completely seized the property of the Roman landowners in the vast area around Carthage and handed it over to his warriors, creating a strong garrison scattered over many square kilometers. The Vandal ‘scattered garrison’ maintained full mobilization efficiency and fulfilled all the functions of a garrison. The warriors were not paid wages, but granted the sustainable tax-free agricultural property. The article describes its functioning and compares it with solutions adopted in the other barbarian countries.
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Theophylact Simocatta’s account of the conflict between the soldiers and citizens of the city of Asemus with the Roman general Peter, the commander of the imperial army, frequently appears in scholarly literature, however, it is inappropriately used to describe the situation in the territories on the Danube during the reign of Emperor Maurice. This is due to lack of a comprehensive analysis of this account as well as to the reflections on the history of this city in the 5th–6th centuries. So far, historians have not exploited the potential of comparing the functioning of the garrison in Asemus in the late 6th century with the attested solutions used in the defence of Thermopylae in connection with Justinian I’s military reforms. A garrison was stationed in Asemus by an imperial privilege, and it could be used outside the city only on the Emperor’s order. The general had no right to include these soldiers in his army without the appropriate imperial document. Peter’s unlawful actions were resisted by the local soldiers and citizens alike. The bishop’s role in this conflict should not be overestimated, since he played an important role only as far as the possible violation of the right to asylum in a church was concerned. The appearance of a garrison of professional soldiers in Asemus and the fact that the city was a bishopric seem to indicate that it experienced a revival in the 6th century, during the restoration of the Empire’s rule over the territories on the Danube after the death of Emperor Anastasius.
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The First Epistle to the Corinthians of St Clement of Rome is one of the most ancient patristic documents from the body of texts of Christian literature. It reflects diversified theological and cultural issues from the turbulent transitional period, from the apostolic to the post-apostolic era of the primitive Christianity. What triggered the writing of the epistle was the unrest and upheaval in the Corinthian community of Christians caused by the illegitimate deposal of some of the local presbyters. In the epis tle, the subject of respect for the ecclesial structures and the hierarchical order is directly connected to the notion of the authentic faith. In this context, the present paper offers a presentation of an early Christian attitude of connecting the faith (πίστις) with a distinct ethos which the author of the Epistle illustrates by means of exegesis of paradigmatic Old and New Testament texts. The resolution of conflict, which is Clement’s primary goal, is reconstructed by means of examining his mode of combining the faith with works or with practical manifestation which implies sociological and not merely individual and intro spective connotations. A faith put in practice should unequivocally be manifested by the strive for concord and peace, by a practice of humility, gentleness, hospitality, obedience, and other virtues which build cohesion, instead of destruction, in the community of Christians. A contribution of the present paper is to be found mainly in the analysis of Clements’s theological interpretation of tension between faith and works which was prominent in the earliest New Testament and Patristic writings, but also in the contem porary theological thought as well.
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In my contribution I trace the transformations of the descent into the underworld from ancient Assyria via Greece and Rome to the world of Christian Late Antiquity. My aim is to analyse the evolution of a pagan and Jewish hellscape into a Christian one. First, I will briefly discuss the earliest known literary descent, that by Enkidu, which almost certainly influenced the poet of the Odyssey (§ 1), who, in turn, paved the way for the famous descent of Orpheus (§ 2). Subsequently, we will return to Assyria, and from there move to Israel and Rome during the early Imperial period (§ 3), before concluding with Christian Late Antiquity (§ 4). In my argument I will concentrate on the interplay of pagan and Christian traditions, as well as to the nature of the sinners in the various hellscapes.
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Common millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and foxtail millet, also knownas Italian millet (Setaria italica P. Beauv.), are among crop grasses that in theAntiquity and the early Byzantine period were grown on a relatively large scale.Yet although the sources indicate that they were among popular crops, they wereneither as widespread not as highly regarded by consumers as wheat and barley.Views pertinent to the dietetic doctrine with regard to those to plants evolvedbefore Galen’s lifetime and were very consistent, considering that they did notchange over the period from the 2nd to the 7th century. This doctrine pointed tothe less beneficial qualities of both these crop plants in comparison to the mosthighly values grains used in bread-making, especially to wheat. Also, commonand foxtail millet were constantly present in the cuisine of the period in question,both being used as food in the rural areas rather than in cities. They were usuallyput in boiled dishes, because millet bread was unpopular owing to its brittlenessand disagreeable taste.Both common and foxtail millet were included among the fármaka used in the periodbetween the 2nd and 7th century, although they certainly were not as favouredin medicine as wheat and barley. Common millet was more often mentioned inthe healing role. Both grains were used in medical procedures as components ofhealing diets, especially foods helpful in alleviating gastric disorders. Flour groundfrom common millet was applied as powder, whereas the grain itself found use as acomponent of warming cataplasms and poultices which usually had a drying quality.In addition, millet to was considered to be an efficacious antidote against poisons.
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Review of: Monika Mikuła and Magdalena Popiołek, ̔ˊΕλληνές ε’σμεν πάντες. Podręcznik do nauki języka starogreckiego (Warszawa: Wydawnictwo „Sub Lupa” 2017) I, 420 s.; II, 325 s.; III, 308 s.; by: Anna Rambiert-Kwaśniewska
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