Search results for: caricature in All Content

Memories about a dragon who meowed like a cat and abou the ruby on the crown of Saint Wenceslas that was as bis as ripe date.

Pameti o varanovi „mnoukajicim vic nez kocka“a o rubinu svatovaclavske koruny, „velikem jako zrala datle“.Zved Bertrandon de la Broquiere na cestach

Author(s): Martin Nejedlý / Language(s): Czech / Issue: 1/2010

Keywords: Burgundy; Pilgrimage; Itinerary; Bertrandon de la Broquière; Islam

Bertrandon de la Broquière, the spy of Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, underwent a long pilgrimage in the Holy Land and Turkey during 1432–1433. In his declining years, in the 1450s, he wrote an account of his travels in the genre of an adventurous memoir entitled Le Voyage d’outre-mer (The Overseas Voyage). His primary task was to follow in the footsteps of his predecessor in espionage Guillebert de Lannoy and gather information that could be used in the next crusade and liberation of Jerusalem. However, he had set a different personal goal for himself: to gather information about the life and faith of the Osman Turks. The unusual nature of Bertrandon’s memoirs accommodated the shift from his original objective. The Overseas Voyage was not intended as a mere handbook for future crusaders and pilgrims; it was also designed to serve as a tool for understanding the “other” world.

A sketch of Peirce’s Firstness and its significance to art

A sketch of Peirce’s Firstness and its significance to art

Author(s): Dinda L. Gorlée / Language(s): English / Issue: 1-2/2009

This essay treats the growth and development of Charles S. Peirce’s three categories, particularly studying the qualities of Peirce’s Firstness, a basic formula of “airy-nothingness” (CP: 6.455) serving as fragment to Secondness and Thirdness. The categories of feeling, willing, and knowing are not separate entities but work in interaction within the three interpretants. Interpretants are triadomaniac elements through the adopted, revised, or changed habits of belief. In works of art, the first glance of Firstness arouses the spontaneous responses of musement, expressing emotions without the struggle and resistance of factual Secondness, and not yet involving logical Thirdness. The essential qualities of a loose or vague word, color, or sound give the fugitive meanings in Firstness. The flavor, brush, timbre, color, point, line, tone or touch of the First qualities of an aesthetic object is too small a base to build the logic of aesthetic judgment. The genesis art is explained by Peirce’s undegeneracy growing into group and individual interpretants and building into the passages and whole forms of double and single forms of degeneracy. The survey of the flash of Firstness is exemplified in a variety of artworks in language, music, sculpture, painting, and film. This analysis is a preliminary aid to further studies of primary Firstness in the arts.

From the Mystic of Dasein to the Construction of a Fundamental Ethics

De la mystique du Dasein à la construction d’une éthique fondamentale

Author(s): Leonard Kouassi Kouadio / Language(s): French / Issue: 09/2012

Keywords: To Be; Ethics; Metaphysics of subjectivity; Mystic of Dasein; Poetry

According to Heidegger, the modern metaphysics of subjectivity is, in essence, at the origin of the crisis of values. In fact, by freeing his will, man (human being) has moved away from his native land. To be back there, it is necessary for him to operate a mystic of Dasein. The mystical must be understood as the comprehension of man who thinks his stay on earth through the image of the poet who bears God’s words. This is the essence of fundamental ethics.

Western influences on 17th-century post-Byzantine wall paintings in the Peloponnese: Roots in the 16th century

Western influences on 17th-century post-Byzantine wall paintings in the Peloponnese: Roots in the 16th century

Author(s): Xanthi Proestaki / Language(s): English / Issue: 1-2/2010

17th-century wall painting in the Peloponnese shows the trends visible in painting in the two great currents of the 16th century, that of the Cretan school and the school of NW Greece. The influx of Western iconographic elements – whether in the overall pattern, as in the scenes of the Massacre of the Innocents, the Crucifixion and the Noli me tangere, or in details – it is done very discreetly and assimilated into the aesthetic of the Byzantine tradition. Western motifs exert no more than an indirect influence on the style of their work. Despite the teachings of the great creators of wall paintings in the 16th century, Frangos Katelanos and Theophanes, and their sensitisation to humanism and Renaissance art, the Peloponnesian artists of the 17th century, the Kakavas and Moschos families and Manuel Andronos, proved to be more conservative and remained loyal to the aesthetic of the Byzantine tradition. Western elements infiltrated their work through the innovations of 16th-century painting. In isolated cases only, such as the Philosophou Monastery, new themes and motifs were introduced that showed the influence of painters of portable icons, whose clients included both the Catholic and Greek Orthodox bourgeoisie, whose good taste and way of life were influenced to a large degree by the ideas of the Renaissance. The innovations introduced in 17th-century wall paintings in the Peloponnese through the great works of the 16th century constitute examples of an art that is trying to renew itself while remaining faithful to its roots and to its doctrinal content. In this way, the co-existence of various elements of folk origin from daily life can be explained, as artists showed particular interest in the world around them and drew many details from it, objects of daily use, clothing, etc. Despite its conservative nature, 17th-century painting in the Peloponnese succeeded in responding to its era. It is an art which, in terms of its iconographic content, belongs to its times, taking on elements even indirectly from Western art, creating eclecticist agglomerations of features of daily life, and in this way reflecting the thought processes of a subjugated people who were trying to survive by preserving their traditions.

Dominique Kahang’a – a Transcultural Ethic of Life: Pathos, Responsibility and Destiny

Dominique Kahang’a – éthique transculturelle de la vie face aux défis de la modernité: Pathos, Responsabilité et Destin

Author(s): César Mawanzi / Language(s): French / Issue: 15/2015

Keywords: Dominique Kahanga; transcultural ethics of life; Responsibility;

In this paper the author attempts to determine a cross-cultural ethic. It shall be understood as a place, from which deliberations are made to critically contemplate the living situation of todays humans with the future in mind. The Principle of Responsibility of Hans Jonas provides a baseline for our reflection. In view of the world economic structures, the geostrategic and political parameters of the world, Globalisation reveals itself as a mechanism which leads to neoliberalism. The turbulences, wars, and actions of terrrorism deliver the evidence that the Great Powers have already been challenged to initiate a new world politic order which renounces violence. The method of cummunity (collaborative) ethic as developed by the Philosopher Dominique Kahang’a proceeds from the thought of consciousness of our ecology (environment) as well as a Dialog with the purpose of achieving peace between the religions and the nations. Human rights, national constitution and democratic values of a constitutional state are also being considered in African countries.

From silence to speech in the poetic writing of Raúl Zurita

Du silence à la parole dans l’écriture poétique de Raúl Zurita

Author(s): Benoît Santini / Language(s): French / Issue: 13/2014

Keywords: Raúl Zurita;Chili;poetry;dictatorship;silence;

Dans le discours poétique du Chilien Raúl Zurita (1950), le silence et le non-dit deviennent un véritable principe d’écriture; en effet, afin de dénoncer par le biais de l’implicite les actes de la Junte militaire (1973-1990), le poète met en place un véritable pacte de lecture avec le récepteur qui, une fois familiarisé avec cette écriture lyrique, parvient à en déceler le sens caché. In the poetic discourse of the Chilean writer Raúl Zurita (1950), silence and then on-said become a veritable principle of writing. In order to denounce implicitly the acts of the military Junta (1973-1990), the poet establishes a pact with the reader who, once familiarised with this lyrical writing, can uncover its hidden meaning.

MIRCEA ELIADE AS SCHOLAR OF YOGA. A historical study of his reception (1936-1954)

MIRCEA ELIADE AS SCHOLAR OF YOGA. A historical study of his reception (1936-1954)

Author(s): Liviu Bordaş / Language(s): English / Issue: 2010+11/2011

‘The Museum of an Extinct Race’ – Fact vs. Legend:

‘The Museum of an Extinct Race’ – Fact vs. Legend:

Author(s): Magda Veselská / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2016

Keywords: jewish museum;Prague;nazism;

One of Prague’s most important tourist attractions is, without a doubt, the local Jewish museum, which attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Most of the visitors know about its existence from tourist guides or from friends or relatives who have already been to Prague; alternatively, they have come across the collections of the Prague Jewish Museum at their displays abroad. Aside from the well-preserved monuments in the former Jewish ghetto, the synagogues that house the museum’s exhibitions, and the museum’s diverse collections, what also may inspire some tourists to visit the museum is the legend surrounding the genesis of its collections during the Second World War. A general idea still prevails that the museum was founded at the behest of the Nazis who intended to create a ‘museum of an extinct race’ in Prague for propaganda purposes and cynically compelled the Jews of Prague themselves to carry out their goal; as if the Nazi authorities had not concealed their plans from the Jews during the war and as if the employees of the Prague Jewish community – who were entrusted with this task – were already aware of the result and the extent of the tragedy that befell European Jewry.

A Search for Truth and Justice

A Search for Truth and Justice

Author(s): Dušan Janák / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2015

Transylvania and the Indo-European Migration Problem: The Romanian Paradigm

Transilvania şi problema indo-europenizării. Paradigma românească

Author(s): Florin Gogâltan / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 2/2016

Keywords: Transylvania; Indo-Europeanization; Romanian paradigm; research history; theoretical models

In this article, I discuss the manner in which the model proposed by Marija Gimbutas regarding the Indo-European migration in Europe was perceived by Romanian specialists. The article is also an extension of my efforts to understand the relations between prehistoric Transylvania and the Pontic steppe. Approached from this historiographic perspective, the subject illustrates a situation symptomatic of Romanian archaeology: the lack, with few exceptions, of serious debates on this controversial subject, the frequent repetition of unverified opinions, statements supported by invalid arguments, etc. Under these circumstances, the late Alexandru Vulpe took a harsh stance against those who considered the Indo-European migration a closed subject.It is well known that the theoretical discourse had little to no impact on Romanian archaeologists, who were not even influenced by Marxist theories. As presented in the article, their arguments in regards to the Indo-European matter, if such thing ever existed, were based on the relationship between professor and disciple, or, plainly, on personal intuition. This approach was subject to some changes only after 1989. Naturally, a new generation of archaeologists developed, ready to bring a different style to their participation in scientific process. Often starting as a rejection of the moral authority claimed by some established archaeologists in the old regime, the validity of their scientific opinions is also questioned. Personal relationships suffered as well; however, there visible transformations, driven by a growing independence coupled with better access to bibliographic sources, breaking the monopoly of personal libraries. New academic models prevailed, while the scientific discussions turned to a more critical view, a natural reflection of the social turmoil which overwhelmed Romania at the end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first century. However, this new reality had a limited impact over the Indo-European matter; therefore, the Gimbutas model remained an educational template, still unquestioned or reviewed.How much do we know today about the social impact triggered by the arrival of the Scythians, the Noua communities, or the Iamnaia shepherds in Transylvania? For some, these periodical infiltrations of steppe populations in the Carpathian Basin had double role. In addition to their destructive role, they also brought technological innovations, which had a major role in further local cultural developments. For others, these influences travelled in the opposite directions, as the Carpathian and Balkan cultural mediums had a decisive role in shaping the socio-cultural realities in the steppe world at the beginning of the Copper Age. Which opinion is accurate? Must we adhere to a unilateral approach? The opinions of Al. Vulpe, as well as some contributions made by E. Kaiser, Y. Rassamakin, B. Govedarica, I. Manzura, R. Harrison, V. Heyd, and many others, filtered through the perspective of current archaeological realities in Transylvania, encouraged me to decide to create a theoretical model which I deemed appropriate for understanding the relations between local prehistoric communities and the north-Pontic world.The existence of clear contacts (collective or individual) in the second half of the fifth millennium BC contributed to the transfer and diffusion of technological innovations. Apart from metal objects (made from copper or gold), certain types of artefacts also circulated in a vast area during this time: specific stone maces, large flint blades, stone or bone sceptres with abstract or zoomorphic shapes, axes decorated on the sharp edge with schematic animal heads, and pottery with crushed shells as temper. Even if we might have a vague idea, we cannot fully understand, based on tangible evidence, the full spectrum of economic repercussions set in motion by these influences. Even less can be said about a possible renegotiation of social structures in Transylvania during the late Tiszapolgár and Bodrogkeresztúr ceramic cultures. For the rest of the Carpathian Basin, where more archaeological information is available, signs of social inequality can be observed from the late Neolithic horizon, and these became more and more visible towards the second half of the fifth millennium BC.It is not possible discuss collective contacts between Transylvania and the Pontic steppe in the middle of the fourth millennium BC, because the second kurgan migration wave, as proposed by M. Gimbutas, cannot be proven. Only from the end of the fourth and the beginning of the third millennium BC is there documented evidence of the presence of Yamnaya communities in the mid-Mureș Valley. Relevant archaeological discoveries are scarce, making it hard to establish the intensity of potential contacts with the local Coțofeni medium. Considering this, there is insufficient evidence to prove the steppe populations were responsible for the major changes which occurred in Transylvania at the beginning of the Early Bronze Age. Based on certain metal artefacts or distinct funerary practices, potential individual connections were often presumed. However, for the period towards the end of the first half of the third millennium BC, I consider certain stone or metal weapons and adornments, as well as the funerary mounds and the stone anthropomorphic stelae, to in fact be representations of social status for the elites involved in a trans-regional dialog (Fig. 1).Similar interpretations concerning the relationship between Pontic communities and the regions they influenced between the fifth and third millennia BC can be found in recent studies by E. Kaiser, Y. Rassamakin, M. Furholt, V. Heyd, I. Manzura and S. Ivanova, to name only a few specialists interested in the movement of populations and products. The current theoretical models concerned with mobility or the transfer of technological knowledge are in a similar position. In the last years, research on funerary mounds in Romania has been increasingly connected to a wider spectrum of interdisciplinary approaches, catching up with European trends. A few examples are eloquent in this regard. A coherent project focused on tumuli was developed by A. Frînculeasa and his team in Prahova County. Needless to say, the results are remarkable and capable of changing our way of interpreting such funerary practices and their impact in the local medium. A project to obtain sufficient absolute dates, coupled with anthropological and metallographic analyses, was undertaken by S. Ailincăi is while investigating the tumulus in Rahman, Tulcea County. If this positive trend continues, there is hope that the thousands of tumuli in southern and eastern Romania can be integrated into a vivid illustration of prehistory, with or without Indo-Europeans.The so-called Cucuteni C ceramic style, also linked several years ago with the North-Pontic area, was analysed in regards to its technological characteristics, targeting the chemical and mineralogical composition of the temper. Interestingly enough, the conclusion suggested the potters had a predilection towards nonstandard materials.Strontium and oxygen isotopes analysed on a skeleton found in a tumulus in Sárrétudvari suggested that some individuals from the Apuseni Mountains travelled to the northwestern Hungarian plains. Although the first small steps have been taken in this direction, the current genetic data available for prehistoric Transylvania is far from sufficient to include this area in some of the European studies dedicated to the reconstruction of Bronze Age life. From a linguistic point of view, the contribution of the steppe populations to the development of the Indo-European languages is considered as an undisputed fact. Hopefully, further research projects will bring more light to this matter.The linguistic debate regarding the Indo-European motherland is, as well, added to the archaeological interpretations. However, the scientific conclusions are still very cautious, unable to surpass certain constraints. Therefore, the evidence presented thus far still supports the Gimbutas - Mallory interpretative line.As a homage to the memory of Alexandu Vulpe, I chose to end this historiographic investigation with some of his thoughts on the matter: “I strongly believe that the beauty of the Indo-European research, in all of its aspects, resides precisely in this perpetual discussion and critical evaluation of the advanced hypotheses”.

Between Fact and Fiction

Between Fact and Fiction

Author(s): Dinda L. Gorlée / Language(s): English / Issue: 15/2015

Keywords: Translation; Semiotic terms; Aesthetics; Salvatore Dali;

Reviewing the theory of the first chapter via some practical examples reveals considerable information about the process of translation and the emergent types of “translation”. The notion of “amusement” suggests that the present objects or events can be turned into pleasant artifacts to everyone’s entertainment. The entertainment of “sacred” rituals aff ords the readers or spectators the factual but at the same time the intensely sensuous dream of the blissful illusion created by the objects d’arts in the audience. The public world, driven by the spectacle of fine arts, excites the admiration, wonder, and enchantment of the ritual festivity. The human and social interest of “amusement” comes from (and is filled with) the sentiment and speculation of Peirce’s primary idea of “musement”. Musement is the private conversation with one’s self, an auto-meditation described proverbially in Peirce’s “aesthetic contemplation, or that of distant castle-building (whether in Spain or within one’s own moral training)” (CP: 6.458). Both extremes of amusement and musement in arts intermingle the public imagery with the musing reveries of the actual person. The dialogue involves the three components of the sign, embodied in the spectator or listener, giving the beliefs or opinions about the qualities of the artwork.

A (partial) Iconographical Dictionary of Early Roman Imperial lamps (70-130 AD)

A (partial) Iconographical Dictionary of Early Roman Imperial lamps (70-130 AD)

Author(s): Laurent Chrzanovski,David Djaoui / Language(s): English / Issue: 16/2018

Keywords: France;Roman shipwreck; harbor;lamps;iconography;

The importance of the Arles harbor's garbage which "sealed" the Arles-Rhône 3 shipwreck, shortly depicted hereafter, is so huge in archaeological materials, quantitatively and qualitatively, that it will give birth in the next decade to more than twenty monographs devoted each one to a specific type of artefact.This lamp-focused article aims to propose, in "avant-première" and in "globish" (the recently accepted expression designating for non-native very poor English), is to highlight only one of the many important results of the final study of the more than 816 intact lamps and +5'000 fragments discovered during the underwater excavations of the Arles-Rhône 3 shipwreck, to be published next year. As a matter of fact, never, in lychnological history, a single small excavation delivered so many motifs from so many different manufactures and adorning productions framed in only 60 years of history (70 to 130 AD), and the different social, economic, productive and merely lychnological topics to be covered in the monograph abound.Here, we would like t propose a discussion on the micro- and macro-regional trade roads and their influences on lamp iconography. As a matter of fact, the corpus is made of artifacts brought to Arles from the most remote parts of the Mediterranean as well as from the nearest Gallic workshops, exactly during the apex of creativity of the Roman workshops in terms of quantity and variety of discus themes. This flourishing lamp decoration vogue started with Tiberius' reign and will slowly end with Trajan's one, our garbage is hence covering the second half of this momentum. Arles, a major multimodal platform as we would say today, transferring goods from the sea to the river Rhône as well as to the consular road network and vice-versa, is certainly one the most perfect observation points possible towards the whole Western Roman Empire. There, we can guess some partial answers on important questions such as: which motifs remained at the level of individual imports? Which ones seduced the local manufactures? Which ones were also produced by the flourishing manufactures of one or both ends of the Western Empire (the Rhine Valley and Africa)? Which ones belong to Gallic lamp-makers' own creativity? The short comparison tables will indicate that there are a lot of hypothesis to study further in this domain. Further, an in-depth immersion on each motif will be proposed through an "illustrated dictionary" of the 290 more relevant motifs with the most relevant lists of parallels and the intact/context-dated lamps found in Gaul, eliminating all additional French-known fragments which did not bring anything relevant to the article.

Romantic Theopolitical Testament – Richard J. Neuhaus and the American City of Man

Romantic Theopolitical Testament – Richard J. Neuhaus and the American City of Man

Author(s): Andrzej Bryk / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2011

Human Rights in Application - Selected Themes

Ljudska prava u primeni – odabrane teme

Author(s): Author Not Specified / Language(s): Serbian / Issue: 1/2018

“Pop-rurality”: Rurality Interdiscourse in the Village of the Year Competition

“Pop-rurality”: Rurality Interdiscourse in the Village of the Year Competition

Author(s): Hedvika Novotná,Dana Bittnerová,Martin Heřmanský / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2017

Keywords: rural anthropology; social representations; imagined rurality; discourse analysis; Czech Republic

The Village of the Year in the Czech Republic is a national competition held since 1995, announced annually by the Ministry of Regional Development. Its aim is to promote the “restoration” and “development” of the Czech countryside through communal projects carried out by villagers themselves. Each year hundreds of Czech and Moravian villages enter the competition. Being focused on the countryside, the notion of rurality is one of the competition’sdefining features. But what kind of rurality is it? What are its constituents? How it is performed in the village competition projects? And what are the sources of the forms it takes?Our analysis of media representations by village competitors (web sites, video presentations, etc.), alongside materials provided for competitors by the Ministry and other participating organizations (competition rules, official documents, etc.) and various media representations of the competition (television reports, etc.), reveals how the discourses involved operate and how they create a certain “ideal” village that is to be seen as a model to be followed. We argue that the several discourses of rurality interwoven in the representations of villages within the competition (those of experts/academics, public/media, villagers, and policymakers) form an interdiscourse of “poprurality”, which is a rurality deterritorialized, enriched with shared global (pop‑cultural) elements, and re-territorialized again, to then float freely in public (especially virtual) space.

Introduction: The Transatlantic Civilisation and Modernity Today

Introduction: The Transatlantic Civilisation and Modernity Today

Author(s): Andrzej Bryk / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2008

Mureş County Library Reflected in the 2017-2018 Written Newspapers. Selective Bibliography

Biblioteca Judeţeană Mureş reflectată în presa scrisă în anii 2017-2018. Bibliografie selectivă

Author(s): Anna Vintilă,Emilia Lucia Cătană / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: 18-19/2020

Keywords: Mureş County Library; newspapers; bibliography; cultural activities; cultural events;

The material bellow is a selection of 279 articles from local and national periodicals, published during 2017-2018: 106 articles in 2017 and 173 in 2018. From the local newspapers we have selected: Cuvântul liber, Népújság, Zi de zi, Vásárhelyi Hírlap (from July 10 2018, it added as title Székelyhon), Punctul, Központ, Telegraful de Mureş, Libraria, and from national level we chose Historia. The articles described provide information about cultural events and other events that Mureş County Library has organized or attended during 2017-2018. This article does not include the online articles.

THE POSTLIBERAL POLITICS OF IVO BANAC AND THE PRICE OF BOSNIA

THE POSTLIBERAL POLITICS OF IVO BANAC AND THE PRICE OF BOSNIA

Author(s): Desmond Maurer / Language(s): English / Issue: 95-96/2021

Keywords: Ivo Banac; postliberal politics; Bosnia; 20th century;

This overlong paper derives from one originally given at a conference to celebrate the life and work of Professor Ivo Banac in Dubrovnik in 2017 on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. In many ways it was written for the one person who can no longer read it. This does not excuse its length, oddities, and non-sequiturs but may in part explain them.

A FAILED ASSASSINATION ATTEMPT ON THE DEŽELIĆ FAMILY IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY IN 1965 BY THE YUGOSLAV SECURITY SERVICE

A FAILED ASSASSINATION ATTEMPT ON THE DEŽELIĆ FAMILY IN THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY IN 1965 BY THE YUGOSLAV SECURITY SERVICE

Author(s): Wollfy Krašić / Language(s): English / Issue: 5-6/2021

Keywords: Croatian émigrés; Berislav Đuro Deželić; communist Yugoslavia; political assassination; Federal Republic of Germany;

The article analyzes the failed assassination attempt by the Yugoslav communist security service on Croatian émigré Berislav Đuro Deželić and his family in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1965. The unofficial position of the Yugoslav communist regime was that only those political opponents who engaged in violent anti-Yugoslav actions were killed abroad. Based on the documents of the Yugoslav Security Service, it is proven that Deželić was not involved in such activities, but that the Yugoslav regime tried to kill him for exclusively non-violent political work.

Avatars of the Madrid Manuscripts by Leonardo Da Vinci

AVATARES DE LOS MANUSCRITOS MATRITENSES DE LEONARDO DA VINCI

Author(s): Margarita Martín Velasco,Elisa Ruiz García / Language(s): Spanish / Issue: 1/2022

Keywords: Leonardo da Vinci; autograph writings; drawings; Vinciana in Spain; Pompeo Leoni; Windsor Collection; Codex Atlanticus; Madrid I and II Codices;

Leonardo da Vinci’s autograph writings and drawings followed a complex fortune until they reached the present day. One of the links in the chain of transmission of the Vincian writings was their arrival in the hands of the Italian sculptor Pompeo Leoni, who settled in Spain. The will of this sculptor clears up any doubts about the presence of an important Vincian collection in Spain, although the description of it in the different wills of the Leoni family does not allow us to fully identify each of the codices that have come down to us. In this article a proposal is made for identification with three levels of certainty based on this notarial description. Among those identified with certainty is the miscellaneous collection now in the Windsor Collection. Less certain is the identification of the Codex Atlanticus, in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. Finally, the provenance of the Madrid I and II Codices can be described as enigmatic, since, although it is known that the collector Juan de Espina bequeathed them to the King of Spain, there is no documentary reference to how they were acquired.