Oblicza Wojny, t. 7, Przed Bitwą
Faces of War, vol. 7, Before the battle
Contributor(s): Tadeusz Grabarczyk (Editor), Magdalena Pogońska-Pol (Editor)
Subject(s): History, Archaeology, Military history
Published by: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego
Keywords: battle; war; history; preparation; weaponry; tactics; strategy; fortifications
Summary/Abstract: In the seventh volume of the publication series "Faces of War" titled "Before the Battle," there are 14 articles. They were written by archaeologists and historians from Poland, Romania, Ukraine, and Hungary. The international team of researchers ensures diverse perspectives on the subject of preparations for military confrontations. The published studies cover the period from the early Middle Ages to World War II. They encompass a wide range of military preparations, including mobilization and troop training, fortification construction, as well as conceptual and diplomatic actions. This publication is highly recommended not only for those who are professionally engaged in history but also for anyone interested in military matters.
Series: Uniwersytet Łódzki
- E-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-304-7
- Print-ISBN-13: 978-83-8331-303-0
- Page Count: 334
- Publication Year: 2023
- Language: English, Russian, Polish
Słowo wstępne
Słowo wstępne
(Editors’ Preface)
- Author(s):Tadeusz Grabarczyk, Magdalena Pogońska-Pol
- Language:English, Russian, Polish
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history
- Page Range:7-12
- No. of Pages:6
- Keywords:battle; war; history; preparation; weaponry; tactics; strategy; fortifications
Prehistoric and Early Medieval Fortified Settlements and High Medieval Castles on the Bohemian-Bavarian Borderland: Means of War, Power, or Symbols of Strength?
Prehistoric and Early Medieval Fortified Settlements and High Medieval Castles on the Bohemian-Bavarian Borderland: Means of War, Power, or Symbols of Strength?
(Prehistoric and Early Medieval Fortified Settlements and High Medieval Castles on the Bohemian-Bavarian Borderland: Means of War, Power, or Symbols of Strength?)
- Author(s):Josef Hložek, Petr Menšík, Olgierd Ławrynowicz
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history
- Page Range:13-40
- No. of Pages:28
- Keywords:Prehistory; The Middle Ages; Bohemian-Bavarian Border; Borders; Castle; Stronghold; Fortified Settlement; Hill-top Site; Landscape of Conflict
- Summary/Abstract:The paper discusses the phenomenon of the persistence of the military, political, and social function of the present-day Bohemian-Bavarian borderland, shaped by the mountain ranges of the Bohemian Forest and the Šumava. The authors have traced the development of settlement patterns in prehistory, the Middle Ages, and the modern period, extending their studies to cover also to recent times. The discussed area constituted a barrier that limited cultural influences from both sides, which is reflected in the discovered relics of material culture. The paper also discusses, using numerous examples, the symbolic role of strongholds and castles located on mountain peaks, which came down to demonstrating the presence of power over the surrounding territory. The Bohemian-Bavarian frontier can also be seen as a peculiar landscape of conflict, which through its morphological characteristics imposed a timeless borderland form of political, military and social organisation.
В канун захвата Мстиславом Мстиславовичем Галича (конец марта – начало апреля 1221 г.): просопография участников битвы
В канун захвата Мстиславом Мстиславовичем Галича (конец марта – начало апреля 1221 г.): просопография участников битвы
(On the eve of capturing Halych by Mstislav Mstislavich (late March – early April 1221): a prosopography of the participants in the battle)
- Author(s):Myroslav Voloshchuk
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history
- Page Range:41-93
- No. of Pages:53
- Keywords:Coloman; Mstislav Mstislavich; Halych; Galicia; siege; battle; elites; prosopography
- Summary/Abstract:The article presents the analysis of the list of the participants in the battle for Halych between the end of March and early April 1221. The main sides of the conflict were the King of Halych and the Hungarian Prince Coloman with his allies and the representative of the Smolensk branch of the Mstislavovids Prince of Torchesk Mstislav Mstislavich and his supporters. The scope of information provided in written records allows us to classify the aforementioned battle as one of the largest not only in Galicia (and more specifically for its capital) but in general – in the lands of the Rurikids until the Mongol invasion. This is confirmed not only by the results of the prosopographic studies carried out in this publication but also by unique for the Rus’-Hungarian inter-dynasty relationships – the first and only one instance when the Hungarian-Polish royal couple (King Coloman and his wife Salomea) by a Rus’ prince, their long imprisonment and further diplomatic negotiations on the conditions of their release. The brilliant victory of Prince Mstislav was determined both by the scale of resources mobilized for the campaign from the Kyiv, Smolensk and, the Cuman steppe and the unyielding attitude of Halych’s defenders. For over a year Coloman and his companions-in-arms fortified and actively defended the city. The fatality of the besieged King of Galicia’s position on the eve of the capturing of Halych by the Rus’ Princes was worsened by the absence of his father Andrew II in Hungary, who together with his wife, the eldest son Béla and daughter Maria, as part of the large delegation, travelled to the Bulgarian border at the beginning of March 1221 (a fact that Prince Mstislav was aware of), which prevented the Arpads to quickly come to the Coloman’s rescue.
The Teutonic Knights in the Southern Hungarian Kingdom: Preparation for Battle
The Teutonic Knights in the Southern Hungarian Kingdom: Preparation for Battle
(The Teutonic Knights in the Southern Hungarian Kingdom: Preparation for Battle)
- Author(s):Silviu Oța
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Archaeology, Military history
- Page Range:95-126
- No. of Pages:31
- Keywords:Teutonic Knights; Hungarian Kingdom; battle; fortifications; weapons; boats
- Summary/Abstract:Until now, the presence of Teutonic knights in the 15th century was analysed mainly based on historical sources. The publications to date focused on the causes of the Teutonic Order’s arrival, the results of their actions, the area they received for administration, and the fortifications they controlled. In this regard, we can mention the works of T. H. Trâpcea (1969), Alexandru Nemoianu (1975), Ioan Hațegan (1979), Eugen Glück (1992), Viorel Achim (2013 and 2014), and Costin Feneșan (2015).The information acquired from written records comes primarily from the documents found in the Teutonic Order’s archives. However, other sources also mention the Knights’ presence and activities in the Banate . These records were also used by Romanian historians to analyse the Knights’ relationship with the local population. The Teutonic Knights – namely a group of 13 Knights under the leadership of Klaus von Redwitz – arrived in Hungary in the autumn of 1429 at the request of King Sigismund of Luxembourg and withdrew from the Banate 1434 or 1435. Nineteen fortifications on the Danube and three located further north (Almăj, Ilidia/Socolari, Mehadia) were assigned to them. Two others (Carașova and Bârzava) were also in Wallachia but were not mentioned and their obligations. Archaeological excavations have been made In the last 50 years, archaeologists carried out excavation works in some fortifications previously administrated by the Teutons: at Drobeta-Turnu Severin), Tricule-Svinița, Saint Ladislau, and in auxiliary fortifications which primarily role was to supply goods and people (Carașova, Mehadia, Ilidia/Socolari). The preparations for battle with the Ottomans made by the 13 Teutonic knights and their retinues proved to be without great results. Furthermore, the amounts required by the Teutonic Knights to cover the most necessary expenses amounted to 346 140 florins per year, a sum too high for the economic capabilities of the Middle Danube region to be raised locally. The Ottoman campaigns of 1432 and 1433 led to the destruction of some fortresses and of their garrisons, including Severin and St. Ladislau. The tactics of the defenders to lock themselves in the fortresses proved to be inefficient when they had to fight with extremely mobile and numerous Ottoman armies.
Preparing for a Vendetta: Family Feuds in Medieval Tuscany
Preparing for a Vendetta: Family Feuds in Medieval Tuscany
(Preparing for a Vendetta: Family Feuds in Medieval Tuscany)
- Author(s):Zoltán Szolnoki
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:127-141
- No. of Pages:15
- Keywords:vendetta; Velluti; Mannelli; Panzani; ricordanze; game-theory; Italian chronicles; revenge
- Summary/Abstract:According to contemporary chroniclers, street fights were daily events in medieval Tuscan cities. In an urban environment, mental and tactical preparedness was necessary, although it was also important to know the inner politics of the city. The background of these conflicts was primarily described by the great urban history writers such as Giovanni Villani and Dino Compagni, but there are also special type sources, the so-called ricordanze, that show different elements of this micro-warfare phenomenon. These sources, which can be defined as merchant diaries, had a more personal viewpoint than the great chronicles, and as for the studies on the roots of the conflicts, it was more practical. The Velluti-Mannelli vendetta which happened in 1295 – written down by Donato Velluti – tells us about conscious time and place planning. The attacks had to be prepared not just politically and tactically, but from the economical point of view, too – which also transpires from the chronicle of Luca di Firidolfi da Panzano, who wrote about the hunting for his father’s murderers. The avengers travelled hundreds of kilometres and used the tools of medieval scouting and spycraft. In this paper, I explain and examine the thoughts of the ricordanze authors and conclude my article with a discussion on conflict resolution strategies. Although for medieval writers the most important elements were the fights, based on the parts of the ricordanze that mention the background of the feuds and the logical structure of the narratives we can also examine the situations that led to the war. Thus, we can attempt to analyse the families’ strategies associated with the preparation for conflict and the orchestrating of the raids and combats.
‘Harce’, or Single Combat before the Battle
‘Harce’, or Single Combat before the Battle
(‘Harce’, or Single Combat before the Battle)
- Author(s):Jan Szymczak
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:143-159
- No. of Pages:17
- Keywords:Poland 10th–16th century; war; solo duels; skirmishers; knightly ethos
- Summary/Abstract:Harce or harc (Hungarian: harcz; Italian: arciere; Russian: styčka/стычка) are single combat skirmishes between individual warriors fought before a battle in front of both enemy armies. Sometimes it was a duel between the commanders of the army or the best warriors delegated by the opposing sides, which would decide the outcome of the battle without it being fought. The first place on the list of knights who won fame for the Polish army belongs to the Silesian prince Boleslav I the Tall, who defeated an opponent of enormous stature during the Italian expedition of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1162 near Milan. In the 13th–16th centuries in Poland, harce were popular in battles fought on an open field and during sieges of fortified structures. Both heavy knights and light cavalrymen participated in them. Harce or single combat is a custom known since ancient times. It was popular in the era of knightly cavalry in the Middle Ages and persisted into early modern times. The characters from Henryk Sienkiewicz’s novels set in the 17th century still maintained this tradition.
БИТВА ПРИ МОХАЧЕ 1526 г. И ЕЕ ВЛИЯНИЕ НА ГЕОПОЛИТИЧЕСКУЮ СИТУАЦИЮ В ЦЕНТРАЛЬНО-ВОСТОЧНОЙ ЕВРОПE
БИТВА ПРИ МОХАЧЕ 1526 г. И ЕЕ ВЛИЯНИЕ НА ГЕОПОЛИТИЧЕСКУЮ СИТУАЦИЮ В ЦЕНТРАЛЬНО-ВОСТОЧНОЙ ЕВРОПE
(Battle of Mohacs 1526 and its impact on the geopolitical situation in Central and Eastern Europe)
- Author(s):Yaroslav Andrusyak, Yana Tovtyn
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:161-176
- No. of Pages:16
- Keywords:Mohacs; Central-Eastern Europe; battle; troops; Turks; Hungarians; Czechs; estates; magnates
- Summary/Abstract:The problem of Turkish expansion, in the context of which the Battle of Mohacs is considered, is very relevant among researchers. Events of the first third of the 16th century radically changed the historical development of the region of Central-Eastern Europe, and this change was directly related to the defeat at the Battle of Mohacs on August 29, 1526. The date of the battle became a chronological border in the history of the Hungarian, Czech Kingdom and adjacent territories (Slovakia, Croatia and others). The unsuccessful internal policy of the representatives of the Czech-Hungarian line of the Jagiellonian dynasty led to a loss of support among the Czech szlachta and Hungarian magnates. It was not possible to attract the advanced monarchs of Europe to the fight against Turkish aggression. The Hungarian and Czech estates underestimated the level of danger and cared more about their own political and economic interests (The unsuccessful policy of the representatives of the Czech and Hungarian Jagiellon dynasty led to the loss of the support among the Czech lords, Hungarian magnates). All this led to the „Mohacs catastrophe”, where the flower of the Hungarian nobility died. According to various statistics, the royal army numbered 25–28 thousand (of which 8 thousand foreigners: Czechs, Poles, Croats, Serbs, Germans, Italians, Spaniards) soldiers and 53–80 guns. The number of Turkish troops was 55–65 thousand soldiers and 160 guns. The defeat at Mohacs had serious geopolitical consequences. Thus, the majority of the Hungarian small and middle gentry supported Janos Zapolyai, and representatives of the higher gentry supported Ferdinand I of Habsburg, who was also elected to the Czech throne. The Transylvanian principality appeared (depended on Turkey), and the so-called Royal Hungary arose on the other part of Hungary. Thus, the Turkish Empire established hegemony in the central-eastern region of Europe.
Mobilisation of the Armies of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth before the Battle of Pereyaslav in 1630
Mobilisation of the Armies of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth before the Battle of Pereyaslav in 1630
(Mobilisation of the Armies of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth before the Battle of Pereyaslav in 1630)
- Author(s):Taras Kovalets
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:177-194
- No. of Pages:18
- Keywords:Cossack Uprising in 1630; Zaporozhian Host; Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; Stanisław Koniecpolski; Taras Fedorovych; military mobilisation
- Summary/Abstract:This article outlines the mobilisation efforts made by both the Royal and the Hetman’s Chancellery with the aim of concentrating the maximum armed forces of the Crown army to suppress the uprising of the Zaporozhian Host under the command of Taras Fedorovych and Anton But. Particular aspects of the mobilisation were considered, such as the methodology of its implementation with regard to units of the so-called ‘quarter’ army (Polish: wojsko kwarciane), foreign troops, private cavalry banners, separate banners of the Lithuanian army, and the remnants of the Zaporozhian Host that remained loyal to the Commonwealth. Based on various published and archival sources (registers of army levies, official and private letters, narrative texts, etc.), the geography and chronology of the movement of the Commonwealth army units during this mobilisation, their composition, numbers, and the names of their commanders have been established as far as possible. Particular attention was paid to aspects of the mobilisation of the private cavalry banners of the local magnates from the Zbaraski, Zasławski-Ostrogski, and Zamoyski families, which have been little studied by historians so far, although soon after their mobilisation provided significant support for the quarter army. The beginning of the long and difficult mobilisation of a foreign regiment under the command of Jakub Butler and the Denhoff brothers and the preparation of the Crown artillery for the campaign are also discussed.The research also helped to conclude that after the first stages of mobilisation before the Battle of Pereyaslav, Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski had sufficient forces (in terms of quality and numbers) to stop the main part of the insurgents’ army and to attempt to engage the enemy in gruelling battles in open field.
Central European Infantry Handbooks in the Time of Early Modern Military Revolution
Central European Infantry Handbooks in the Time of Early Modern Military Revolution
(Central European Infantry Handbooks in the Time of Early Modern Military Revolution)
- Author(s):Klára Andresová
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:195-211
- No. of Pages:17
- Keywords:Central Europe; Early modern period; Infantry; Military handbooks; Book history
- Summary/Abstract:The theory of early modern military revolution, which was presented by Michael Roberts in the 1950s and was later revised by various historians, is well known and still in use even today. One of the pillars of supposed revolution was a change of infantry training and a general change of infantry tactics, which first happened in the Netherlands in the 1590s. Another modification of infantry training and tactics took place in Sweden during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus. These transformations were reflected by a specific genre of period learned literature – military handbooks for infantry. Military manuals were published not only in Western Europe but also in Central Europe,, mostly in Germany. In the period of 1550–1650, approximately 125 military handbooks were printed in ca. 225 editions. Twenty-five of these books were concerned specifically with the art of infantry war. Book history is a transdisciplinary field which offers new methods of studying military history. While researching changes of the content and formal aspects of military publications, we can trace changes of period military theory. The prosopography of military theorists and book publishers helps to reveal how the new ideas were disseminated – in this case how the new approaches to infantry training and the art of war spread from Western and Northern Europe to its centre. The aim of this contribution is not only to describe period infantry handbooks, but also to characterise the transfer of revolutionary changes in infantry warfare from Netherlands and Sweden into Central Europe with the help of period military manuals – especially those intended for infantry.
КРЕПОСТЬ НИКОЛАЕВ В СИСТЕМЕ ОБОРОНЫ ГАЛИЧИНЫ ВО ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ ХІХ – НАЧАЛЕ ХХ ВЕКA
КРЕПОСТЬ НИКОЛАЕВ В СИСТЕМЕ ОБОРОНЫ ГАЛИЧИНЫ ВО ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ ХІХ – НАЧАЛЕ ХХ ВЕКA
(The Fortress of Mykolaiv in Galicia's Defence System in the Second Half of the 19th Century and the Beginning of the 20th Century)
- Author(s):Leontiy VOITOVYCH
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:213-243
- No. of Pages:31
- Keywords:Galicia; fortress; Mykolaiv on the Dniester; World War I; Russia; Austria-Hungary; Poland; 19th century; 20th century
- Summary/Abstract:The article discusses the preparations for the defence of Galicia in the second half of the nineteenth - early twentieth century using the example of the construction and use of the Mykolaiv fortress on the Dniester River. The plans of the defensive structure are presented, as well as its fundamental transformations during the period in question. The article also discusses the creation of new infrastructure around the fortress, i.e. the construction of a railway line and paved roads. The redevelopment works were considerably affected by the changes in political conditions, especially Austro-Russian relations, the activities of Russian intelligence, etc. Particular attention was paid to the events that took place around the fortress during the hostilities in Galicia in 1914 and the Polish-Ukrainian war in 1918-1919 and the commanders that operated in the area, including generals Frantz Konrad von Götcendorf, Edward Böhm-Ermolli, Alexei Brusilov, and Anton Denikin. The paper also presents the circumstances of the capturing of the fortress by the Russian army and the course of the military actions in the Mykolaiv area. The discussed fortress is one of the best-preserved monuments of WWI fortifications on the territory of Ukraine.
КОНЦЕПЦИЯ «МОРСКОЙ СИЛЫ» И ИСПАНО-АМЕРИКАНСКАЯ ВОЙНА 1898 Г.: РЕФЛЕКСИЯ КАПИТАНА А.Т. МЭХЭНA
КОНЦЕПЦИЯ «МОРСКОЙ СИЛЫ» И ИСПАНО-АМЕРИКАНСКАЯ ВОЙНА 1898 Г.: РЕФЛЕКСИЯ КАПИТАНА А.Т. МЭХЭНA
(The ‘Sea Power’ Concept and Spanish-American War 1898: Reflexion of Captain A.T. Mahan)
- Author(s):Taras Piatnychuk
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:245-259
- No. of Pages:15
- Keywords:sea power; navy; battleship; cruiser; monitor; Spanish-American war
- Summary/Abstract:The article discusses the problem of results of and lessons from the Spanish-American war of 1898 through the «sea power» concept. American captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, who was the author of this concept, believed that the guarantee of the power and prosperity of any great political power was a powerful navy. In this view, the United States, which Mahan also counted among the mightiest world powers, should build its navy more actively. Not only did the war with Spain confirm Mahan’s ideas, but also allowed him to expand his concept, leading to the publication of his book Lessons of the war with Spain and other articles. Although Mahan noticed the successful ending of the war on land and at sea, he also pointed out some serious miscalculations that should be corrected as soon as possible. In particular, the US government had to take care of improving its coastal fortifications. If Spain had chosen the tactics of raiding coastal cities, the US would have suffered colossal damage. Other issues postulated by Mahan included increasing the number of warships and army units. In his opinion, it was necessary to allocate additional funds for that purpose and launch a publicity campaign to win the people’s support. While analysing the composition of the US Navy, Captain Mahan recommended focusing on the construction of two types of warships: battleships, to play the main role in sea battles and cruisers that, stripped of armour, were to serve as support for the battleships. Mahan also argued that the construction of older types of ships, such as monitors, should be abandoned.
Pro-defence activities of women’s organisations during the wars for independence and the establishment of the Polish borders in the years 1914–1921
Pro-defence activities of women’s organisations during the wars for independence and the establishment of the Polish borders in the years 1914–1921
(Pro-defence activities of women’s organisations during the wars for independence and the establishment of the Polish borders in the years 1914–1921)
- Author(s):Urszula Kurcewicz
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:261-281
- No. of Pages:21
- Keywords:Women’s League for War Alert; League of Women of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia; Voluntary Legion of Women; Polish White Cross; World War I; feminism
- Summary/Abstract:The aim of the study is to show the levels on which Polish women joined the endeavour to regain independence after the period of the Partitions. Principally, the study covers the time period from 1914 to the end of the Polish–Bolshevik War in 1921. However, in order to fully present the background of the pro-defence activities of Polish women, the text also refers to a number of events from the period preceding the outbreak of World War I. The activity of female combatants in the struggle for independence and establishment of national borders during the Second Polish Republic is also discussed. The text consists of two parts: in the first part, the author presents the participation of women in paramilitary organisations and armed struggle during World War I and their participation in the Greater Poland Uprising and in the battles for Lviv in Eastern Galicia. She also discusses the activities of women in the Legions, the Polish Military Organisation, and the Voluntary Legion of Women. The second part of the study presents the contribution of civilian women's organisations, in particular the Polish White Cross, to help soldiers and civilians injured in combat. The author points to the role played by the Women’s League for War Alert and the League of Women of Galicia and Cieszyn Silesia in securing the army's material base. Faced with the threat of the Bolshevik invasion, women not only actively supported the combatants, but also created a resilient defence propaganda machine in dozens of magazines. The author discusses the agitation campaign for joining the Volunteer Army. The activists of women's associations organised lotteries, festivities, and competitions, during which they raised funds to support the fighters. The sources of the paper are memoirs and the relevant period press, as well as contemporary monographs and scientific articles.
ЧЕХОСЛОВАЦКАЯ АРМИЯ И ВЕЛОСИПЕДНЫЕ ОТРЯДЫ 1918–1939 гг.
ЧЕХОСЛОВАЦКАЯ АРМИЯ И ВЕЛОСИПЕДНЫЕ ОТРЯДЫ 1918–1939 гг.
(Czechoslovak Army and Bicycle Units)
- Author(s):David Hubený, Naděžda Kruglová
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:283-301
- No. of Pages:19
- Keywords:Czechoslovakia; army; bicycle units; modernisation; cavalry
- Summary/Abstract:In the last three decades of the 19th century, the rising popularity of bicycles attracted the attention of army commanders. Soon, they noticed the striking advantages of using bicycles, including speeding up the infantry’s movements. Another great benefit was that bicycles did not require much attention, unlike the most renowned yet demanding form of transportation – horses, which necessitated the presence of special troops in the cavalry to take care of the animals. Therefore, cycling proved to be the cheapest form of personal transportation for the army at that time. Since its establishment, the Czechoslovak army has used bicycle units. Each border battalion had its own company of cyclists. In the early 1930s, there were several studies on bicycle units and shortly after that, four bicycle battalions joined the cavalry brigades. In 1937, a fifth bicycle battalion was formed. These units were considered to be the most well-trained, forming a valuable part of the fast divisions. In 1938, bicycle battalions were a part of the operation against the uprising of Heinlein’s terrorists; bicycle units also operated on the territory of Subcarpathian Rus, suppressing the activities of Polish and Hungarian sabotage groups. The article discusses the history of the development of the Czechoslovakian bicycle units and scrutinises how the Czechoslovak military perceived this phenomenon. The paper also includes information about foreign bicycle units.
ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ ДВИЖЕНИЯ СОПРОТИВЛЕНИЯ В ХАРЬКОВЕ В ПЕРВЫЕ МЕСЯЦЫ ВОЙНЫ С ГИТЛЕРОВСКОЙ ГЕРМАНИЕЙ
ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ ДВИЖЕНИЯ СОПРОТИВЛЕНИЯ В ХАРЬКОВЕ В ПЕРВЫЕ МЕСЯЦЫ ВОЙНЫ С ГИТЛЕРОВСКОЙ ГЕРМАНИЕЙ
(Formation of the Resistance Movement in Kharkiv in the first months of the war with Nazi Germany)
- Author(s):Helena Diakowa
- Language:Russian
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:303-314
- No. of Pages:12
- Keywords:World War II; Kharkiv; Resistance Movement; partisans; underground fighters; NKVD agents
- Summary/Abstract:On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union. A week later, on June 29, the Council of People’s Commissars of the USSR and the Central Committee of the communist party (Bolshevists) of Ukraine (CP(b)U) issued a directive to the front-line party organisations, in which they called for the creation of partisan detachments and sabotage groups to fight against the Wehrmacht. Special forces were established for this purpose, consisting of party members, Komsomol, and Soviet activists at the regional, city, and district levels. Already in early July, such a task force began to operate in Kharkiv. In addition to the aforementioned persons, the unit included employees of the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs. The NKVD officers were responsible for the creation of local partisan detachments, and party and Komsomol workers were involved in the formation of underground units. In addition, the anti-German resistance included sabotage groups, scouts, signalmen, and a network of safe houses, also selected by the NKVD. Leaders of the party, Komsomol, Soviet authorities, heads of some enterprises, institutions, collective farms, NKVD employees, and medical workers operated behind the enemy lines. Special bases holding ammunition, food, medicines, and other necessary supplies were also formed to support the underground units. People who had collaborated with NKVD before the war became the operatives responsible for sending reports to the Soviets about the political and economic situation in Kharkiv and its environs, and the attitude of the local population towards the Germans, their allies, and collaborators.
British Diplomatic and Military Preparations for the Pacific War from 17 October to 7 December 1941
British Diplomatic and Military Preparations for the Pacific War from 17 October to 7 December 1941
(British Diplomatic and Military Preparations for the Pacific War from 17 October to 7 December 1941)
- Author(s):Adam Mordzak
- Language:English
- Subject(s):History, Military history
- Page Range:315-330
- No. of Pages:16
- Keywords:United Kingdom; Japan; World War II; Far East; Southeast Asia
- Summary/Abstract:The assumption of the post of Prime Minister of Japan by General Tojo Hideki on 17 October 1941 was interpreted in London as a prelude to further aggressive actions on the part of Tokyo. The purpose of this article is to examine what steps the British government took to prepare for a potential confrontation in diplomatic and military fields. A key reinforcement of British forces was the creation of the Far East Fleet squadron intended to serve as a primary deterrent, which was done at the expense of weakening the position of the British Navy in other areas. In contrast, land troops in the Malay region received only token support. The Air Force was in the worst position, as there were far too few aircraft for defensive purposes and they were not of the best quality. However, due to the involvement on other fronts and supplying military equipment to the Soviet Union, it was impossible to deliver more weapons to Southeast Asia. In the area of diplomacy, the main effort was directed at securing guarantees of support from the United States. However, due to the Neutrality Acts and the general reluctance of the American public to participate in the war, only verbal promises of assistance were obtained. Cooperation with the Dutch East Indies authorities went much better and they remained the most important ally for the British Empire in the area. In addition, attempts were made to enlist the cooperation of Thailand, but London’s offer to that country remained extremely unattractive, as the British were unable to provide guarantees of territorial integrity for the Thais. All these factors, combined with a misreading of Japanese intentions, meant that Britain entered the armed conflict with Japan poorly prepared, leading to the defeat at the Battle of Malaya and the fall of Singapore.