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Review of: Anis H. Bajrektarević: From WWI to WWW. Geopolitics 100 Years Later, Less explored aspects of geopolitics, technology, energy and geoeconomics, and other foreign policy essays, Addleton Academic Publishers, New York, 2018, 342 pages ISBN 978-1-942585-41-1 (e-book)
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The role of the Janissary corps in the history of the post-classical Ottoman Empire is one of the most debated themes in historiography. Undoubtedly, this role transcended its purely military functions and had much wider social, economic, and political repercussions, not only for the capital of the Empire but also for the provinces. This was particularly true in the context of the decentralization of the corps and their infiltration into local societies and economies in the eighteenth century. This paper aims to examine the local implications of these multi-layered processes in the town of Rusçuk (Ruse, on the Lower Danube), based on information from a rare, detailed mid-18th-century avarız defter. The source provides valuable information on the local society, with a key focus on the military strata in the town of Rusçuk, dominated almost entirely by the Janissaries. The information from the defter offers valuable details about their inner hierarchy, payment structures, and clustering along professional lines in the urban quarters. This exhaustive but generally statistical information will be correlated with data from the kadi court records of the local sharia judges of Rusçuk from approximately the same period (circa mid-18th century). Through a micro-historical approach, the study attempts to provide a more adequate context for understanding the demographic parameters, the degree of infiltration of the military into local society and economy, and their role in the everyday life of the province.
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This paper examines the personal interventions of the empress in the reform process. Maria Theresa intervened in this process in various ways. First of all, she was able to supervise it directly through her signing of official documents, to which she would add instructions for their enactment to the court authorities or to particular countries of her realm. She also tried to make sure that competent individuals were appointed to the administrative apparatus responsible for implementing and supervising the reforms, irrespective of their social estate – though in this she was only partly successful. In addition, she kept her civil servants in check by requiring them to file regular reports. Finally, by calling for fiscal economies she had a hand in controlling public expenditure.
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Based on rich archival sources, the article studies the failed formation of an “Albanian Regiment” in Corfu by the British army during the Napoleonic Wars. Employing Albanians as marines was deemed useful due to their renowned martial virtues. The failure of the endeavour is attributed to the mistrust among their allies (the Russians and the Ottomans), both of whom coveted Corfu. Examination of the sources reveals that the British wished to form a regiment of Christian or Greek-Albanians. Indeed, the term they used at the time applied not only to the locals of Albania but to all experienced mercenaries in the Balkans. However, this was never made clear to the Russians, who used all the negative stereotypes of the Albanians to undermine the British project, nor to the Ottomans, who wanted to involve Ali Pasha, thereby increasing Russian fears.
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Aparently a story for children, Shalome Rides a Royal Elephant – written and illustrated by Jael Silliman, an author, scholar, and women’s rights activist, a tenured Associate Professor at the University of Iowa who has written extensively about the Baghdadi Jewish community to which she belongs – tells the story of the first Jews of Calcutta.
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With the great wave of global integration in economy, society and culture, historiography began to acknowledge the importance of interpreting the past at the highest – world level. Under the influence of numerous historians (primarily in the United States and Western Europe) during the 19th century, and to a much greater extent after 1945, rather innovative directions of world, global and transnational history were created trying to overcome contradictions and a narrow interpretation of the history of international relations, national states and local communities. These focused both on local identities and on states as key factors in the past. In the search for phenomena that permeated world societies, historians, under the influence of other social sciences, began to recognize capitalism as par excellence supranational, that is, a world phenomenon. Although it may seem that the interest in capitalism as a building block of global history (that is, the world system as Immanuel Wallerstein said) is more recent and under the influence of the post-Cold War era, the world-historical significance of this phenomenon was first recognized by authors from the turn of the 19th to the 20th century. Among them, the German economist, sociologist and historian Werner Sombart (1863–1941) has a special place, since he devoted several decades of his career to the study of this phenomenon.
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This article examines a brief episode from the Little Ice Age and its impact over the Ottoman empire during mid-1780’s. It aims to explore the transregional connections in the Eastern Mediterranean, driven by the adverse socio-economic consequences of climate stress after the eruption of Iceland's Laki volcano in 1783 –1784. The study tends to set up a series of causations illustrating how a certain global climatic event has considerable local socio-economic influences that test the Ottoman provisioning system and create a possibility for central administration to connect remote ecological zones in order to meet the necessities of food supply across the Mediterranean. Current scientific research utilizing archives of nature, such as dendrochronology, ice core analysis, sediment studies, and pollen analysis, provides insights into the past climate. This data corresponds with a range of written records meticulously maintained in archives of societies, with the most significant for this study being the documents preserved in the Ottoman archives. The written sources examined in this paper emphasize on the logistical coordination between two remote ecological zones: the Balkans and Egypt, situating this coordination within the larger context of political, economic, and social instability of the Ottoman Empire in a period of climatic stress. The Ottoman provisioning system of grain supplies connected food shortages in Egypt and the Hejaz to different agricultural areas in the Balkans and the Black Sea basin in order to mitigate the crisis in the Nile valley. Although this aid had a temporary effect, it nevertheless demonstrated the extent of the state’s administration ability to balance the natural resources across the vast territory of the empire.
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In this study, we consider real prices, real wages, real pensions, purchasing power, and consumption in Bulgaria during communism, transition, and EU integration. We focus on a range of essential goods representative of Bulgarian household consumption. We compile the corresponding data series based on official publications by the Bulgarian statistical authorities. The real values are computed using a unified index of consumer prices for all periods under consideration. We find that the significant increase in nominal incomes during communism, matched by administrative price controls, led to artificially high real wages and purchasing power. As this was achieved in an economy characterised by continuous shortages and accumulating inflationary pressures, we claim that the severe economic downturn and high inflation in the 1990s were inevitable. For transition, we point to the process of restoration of economic logic, the re-equilibration of markets, and the ensuing drop in real incomes as the main causes of purchasing power losses. We argue that this deterioration of real incomes manifests the price paid by society for decades of economic mismanagement. Concerning EU integration, we explain the rapidly increasing real incomes, purchasing power, and consumption with the development of the Bulgarian economy in those years, following the well-established principles of sound economic management. Notably, we demonstrate that at the end of the reviewed period, given the presence of real prices that were very close to their historical lows, real incomes and purchasing power surpassed communist-era peaks. This study contributes to the literature by providing new long term data on important economic indicators for Bulgaria. This paves the way for further research involving comparisons of the past and present economies.
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The emergence of a new institution with religious and political influence inevitably leads to the imposition of new and the abolition of already established social practices. Some economic activities are affected during such periods – if they do not disappear, they suffer significant losses for a certain period. Such is the case with the incense trade. By the middle of the 4th century, incense was used daily in religious rituals in temples, private homes, and all public places where it was customary to perform them. The establishment of Christianity as the only state-recognized religion on the territory of the Roman Empire led to a sharp decline in the consumption of incense, first in temples and public spaces, and gradually in rituals in private homes. In this sense, the religious practices established by the Church were a barrier to development, which led to the decline of the frankincense trade and some trade centers such as Petra.
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The Byzantine-Bulgarian War of 894–896 was sometimes called the first economic war in medieval Europe. The expulsion of Bulgarian merchants from the Constantinopolitan market and their transfer to the market of Thessaloniki served as a cause de la guerre for Bulgarian ruler Symeon. A survey of historiography concludes that most scholars resorted to a restatement of the historical facts conveyed by Byzantine written sources. While scholars attempted to clarify the status of Bulgarian merchants in the Byzantine capital, the paper raises questions concerning the commodities Bulgarians supplied to the Byzantine market and what they demanded in exchange. The paper explores how Bulgarian ruler Simeon was affected by the transfer of Bulgarian merchants away from the Byzantine capital by applying methods of enquiry such as textual analysis and comparison of historical data. The military response of the Bulgarian ruler allows various hypotheses. The paper proposes that Bulgarian merchants most likely exchanged goods for multiple types of Byzantine and non-Byzantine textiles, not on the list of forbidden articles to export. The Book of Eparch informs us that Byzantine-Bulgarian commerce was in kind via barter exchange. Based on the examination of the commercial terms stipulated in the tenth-century Byzantine-Rus treaties, the paper considers the issue of Symeon’s involvement in Byzantine-Bulgarian commercial affairs in a similar fashion to the Rus princes who sent their envoys and merchants to the Byzantine Empire to sell the surpluses of collected taxes in kind. The paper addresses the issue of fiscal policy and taxation practise in the ninth-century Bulgaria.
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The reforms carried out in the military and fiscal system of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 17th and 18th centuries, had a significant meaning for the changes in economic life and the establishment of transitional forms in the development of agriculture and the urban economy. All of them – mukâta’as, malikânes, waqfs, çiftliks –are known from the previous period as well, but acquired different dimensions and directions of development in the conditions of the 18th century. The research is focused on the widespread penetration of the iltizam system in various sectors of the economy in the 18th century, including in the structures of the Orthodox Church. On the example of published and unpublished Ottoman documents – mainly mufassil (detailed) defteris, annual income-expenditure statements, the so called suret, suret-i ruznamçe hakani, arzuhals, etc. – the study attempts to trace the role of the mukâta’as and the malikane system in the agrarian sector and the urban economy in the Rumeli provinces of the Ottoman Empire, respectively the degree of state intervention, the imposed barriers and the opportunities for economic development in perspective.
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This article aims to survey Ottoman charitable foundations operating in the Bulgarian lands during the 18th and 19th centuries, with a particular focus on the so-called cash waqfs, which functioned as credit institutions. The research is based on near 100 waqfiyyas (waqfname) and other archival materials. The data have been statistically presented and analyzed in four tables that outline the general profile of these waqfs – detailing the origins of their assets, their founders, and their methods of operation. Waqf institutions are grouped and analyzed based on their monetary assets, interest rates, and the profits they managed (or failed) to generate. The study seeks to answer the question: why didn’t these monetary foundations evolve into modern banking institutions? Is the Islamic concept of “perpetuity” responsible for this limitation? Examples from various cities in Ottoman Bulgaria are provided, initiating the mapping of these institutions.
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The article examines the main problems of the development of urbanization in the Bulgarian lands in the 19th century - of a political and administrative, economic, sanitary-hygienic, epidemic and urban planning nature. The efforts of the Ottoman authorities and the local population to deal with the problems, which hinder the normal functioning of socio-economic life in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire, are analyzed. As a result of these efforts, the living conditions in the cities in the Bulgarian lands have improved, their economic and demographic development has been stimulated and the process of urbanization in the region has been activated on the eve of the Liberation of Bulgaria.
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The Bulgarian guild organizations during the Renaissance were the most comprehensive economic and social organization, professional and social support of the population. The guilds represented self-governing craft and trade associations of a closed nature, uniting people with the same livelihood, with a common leader, obeying common rules, the guild statute and a specific structure. The members of the guild organization, as residents of a given settlement, complied with local traditions, honored and celebrated holidays (Easter, Christmas, etc.), and also celebrated the holiday of their guild and the patron saint of the craft. The guild holiday belongs to the so-called “heavy” holidays, i.e. holidays celebrated with particular solemnity by the members of the community. During the guild festival, which often lasted several days, there were church services for the living and deceased members of the guild, a general meeting of the guild was held, at which the report of the governing bodies was accepted and those who would rule in the future were elected. There was also a real celebration with a common meal and merriment.
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The role of the State Council for the economic development of the Principality of Bulgaria is a topic that still remains unexplored. With this article, the author aims to show the contribution of the Council to overcoming the economic barriers facing the country by analyzing and presenting conclusions about the adopted legislative acts and the discussed bills. The State Council adopts the “Law on Public Tenders”, “Public Administrative Regulations for the conclusion of contracts and the obligations imposed on the entrepreneur” and the “Law on Collections and Contributions”. The terms “entrepreneur” and “government procurement” are defined, which allows a number of infrastructure projects to be built. Synchronization between central and local government is improving. Mandatory documentation for tax payments allows better monitoring of tax collection. The bill for the promotion of industry presents the problems facing the development of the Bulgarian economy, such as higher interest rates in the Principality and high customs tariffs. It proposes a solution to these problems, such as the creation of industrial banks, assistance to small producers, giving priority to the production of paper, textiles, etc. Although the law was not adopted, the ideas later became the basis of protectionism in Bulgaria. The State Council is debating numerous laws that have been adopted by the Third Ordinary National Assembly, such as the “Law on Auctions, the Law on Vineyards”, “Land Tax and Alcoholic Beverages”, the “Law on the Processing and Extracting Opium Poppy” etc. In the end, the number of economic initiatives undertaken by the state councilors lead to the improvement of economic conditions and introduce good European practices into the Bulgarian legislative framework. This is happening in the conditions of a complex political situation, but it also shows that to overcome the economic barriers, synchronous work between all institutions is needed.
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The aim of the current text is to shed light on the obstacles to the development of commercial entrepreneurship in the southwestern Bulgarian lands during the 19th century. In order to achieve this goal, a comparison is made between the conditions for the development of commercial entrepreneurship in Northern and Southern Bulgarian lands with those in today’s southwestern Bulgaria (Razlog, Bansko, etc.) and in the Republic of North Macedonia (Veles). Probably, a complex of factors hampered entrepreneurship in the field of commerce and especially long-distance trade in the 19th century. For example, the military actions that Napoleon Bonaparte led with Austria seriously disrupted the trade contacts between the merchants from the Balkans (incl. Bansko and Razlog) with Central Europe. An important factor was the economic crisis in Vienna which took place in 1810–1811. It severely affected entrepreneurs from the Balkan Peninsula. On the other hand, the economic changes after the signing of the Adrianople Peace Treaty (1829) and especially the expansion of the Austrian influence along the Middle and Lower Danube, led to economic revival in the northern Bulgarian settlements (such as Vidin, Ruse, Svishtov, Tarnovo, etc.) and contributed to the decline of the activities of the entrepreneurs from Razlog, Bansko, etc. Moreover, Austrian economic influence contributed to the flourishing trade contacts on the both banks of the Danube. This was the reason for the decline of the “old” terrestrial trade and the flourishing maritime and Danubian commerce. The shift of commercial traffic to the south – towards Thessaloniki, as well as the spread of railway transport will also have contributed to the economic decline of some settlements. The mountainous terrain and isolation, combined with the high prices for transporting the traded goods, probably also prove to be a barrier to active entrepreneurial activity.
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The article presents and analyzes the role of the Ministry of Agriculture in solving the existing problems in the development of the agricultural sector in Bulgaria in the interwar period. Its important role is due to the traditional agrarian nature of the economy, as well as the dominance of the rural population in social stratification – essential features of Bulgarian capitalism throughout the 1878–to–1944 period. Since its establishment in 1911 and during the interwar period, the Ministry of agriculture and state property has proved to be a contributing factor in the administrative and management system of the country. Over the decades, the Ministry of Agriculture has gone through a good deal of gradual structural and organizational transformations, as well as name changes. However, in terms of its content and functional characteristics, it has always remained one of the main units in the system of state governance in Bulgaria, as an integral part of the executive branch.
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It has been shown in economic theory that the emergence of new market industries leads to accelerated economic growth. Economic growth in turn induces an increase in income inequality. Income inequality in the long run produces a greater degree of wealth inequality. Such processes have been observed in modern market economies with particular intensity since the end of the twentieth century. High wealth inequality produces various forms of inefficiency. This calls for new approaches to reducing wealth inequality that do not distort the efficiency of the free market. Inheritance rights are a type of property rights. Their consideration is part of property rights theory and institutional economic theory. They have the potential to offer effective solutions to problems. This paper examines the development of inheritance rights in Bulgaria over the years and the political and socio-economic changes associated with them. In the periods under review, no significant differences in economic terms can be discerned with respect to the rights themselves and the related laws of succession. The first period (1978-1944) was characterised by attempts by the State to shake off the culture and traditions (customary law) that were strongly rooted in the population with regard to the transmission of inheritance, in order to create a more modern and adequate legal basis for the new economic and social realities. This has been difficult to achieve and several legislative changes in the Succession Act of 1896 and 1906 retreated from these aspirations. During the years of the two Succession Acts of 1890 and 1949, hardly any differences were found with regard to the acceptance of property by inventory and liability to the heir‘s creditors. The differences as to the disposable part of the estate are small - in the old 1890 Act it was possible to reach 2/3 disposable part, in the new one up to 1/2., indicating that the old one gave a little more freedom to heirs in certain circumstances. The significant differences for economics, affecting inheritance rights of property, come mainly from other laws regulating property and taxes on property and its transactions. Through these laws, in the period 1944-1989, the rights to transmit inheritance were severely restricted, especially if larger inheritances were involved. This was achieved through the restrictions on personal and family immovable property set out in the 1973 Citizens‘ Property Act and the introduction of high tax rates on larger inheritances (Local Taxes and Fees Act, 1951). The changes since 1989 have not led to any significant differences in inheritance rights per se, but rather in improving both the economic and legal possibilities to transfer large inheritances without hindrance.
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The study is based on the archival fund of the Bulgarrenault Automobile Factory in Plovdiv. Its establishment is part of the attempts of the technologically backward socialist countries to meet the growing demand for cars through cooperation with Western manufacturers. In scientific publications to date, little information is given about the factory and its production, which in some cases is inaccurate. In this regard, the chronology of the foundation and construction of the factory, the duration of the construction works, its area and number of personnel have been clarified. Attention is paid why and how the enterprise was opened in Plovdiv as well as a state-owned agricultural holding existed on its place earlier. Another little-known fact is that during the first six months, the assembly of cars was carried out on a temporary assembly line in Hall No. 10 of the International Fair in Plovdiv. Until the factory entered full operation at the end of 1967, cars were assembled using the SKD system, which has so far remained unnoticed. It was claimed that the cars were fitted using the CKD system. However, this happens after the factory is opened. Until then, cars were sent from France in sets of 10 and assembled on the temporary line. When the factory is operational, the sets start at 50 cars each. The demand is high, but the Bulgarian state does not support the production. For the entire period, 6,995 cars were produced. The factory, which costs about three million BGN, works far from its capacity and produces an average of 123 cars per month, which is almost a manufactory. The closing of the factory in 1976 after unsuccessful attempts Bulgarrenault to be replaced with camping trailers and gasoline engines, means a missing of valuable chance for development of a modern Bulgarian automotive industry.
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In the middle of the 19th century, the first shoemaking factories began to spring up in the Bohemian lands. Their founders were almost exclusively Jewish businessmen. Until the end of the First World War and the post-war rise of the Zlín giant Baťa, Jewish entrepreneurs were the leading force behind the footwear industry, which was belatedly industrialized in the years around the First World War. The road to the forefront of industrial shoe production before 1918 led through generational Jewish involvement in leather processing and through entrepreneurship in the industrial production of textiles, technologically related to the footwear industry. This study focuses on the long-term trajectories that led Jewish entrepreneurs to industrial shoe production from the mid-19th century to the first quarter of the 20th century. It further examines female entrepreneurs in footwear manufacturing and trade, and the watershed era of the Great War, when most of the shoe joint-stock companies, again Jewish-owned, were constituted.
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