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Slovak Foreign Policy in 2008 through the Eyes of the Slovak Foreign Minister

Author(s): Miroslav Lajčák / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

For Slovak foreign policy, the year 2008 was both a year of continuity in terms of fundamental priorities and goals and a year which marked the beginning of significant change within the external environment in which Slovak diplomacy operated. On the international scene, Slovakia backed solutions based on effective multilateralism and adherence to international law. Slovakia was able to fulfill its main foreign policy objectives and the external conduct of the country strengthened its international position.

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Slovakia’s energy policy in 2016: struggling for interconnections

Author(s): Pavol Szalai / Language(s): English Publication Year: 0

Slovakia combines a high energy dependence with high energy intensity and relies on energy imports, mostly from Russia. However, in recent years this Central European country has made progress in terms of building interconnections in the gas sector, and market coupling in the power sector. Diversification is now possible for gas as well as oil supplies. Slovakia now faces a different challenge: to preserve its role as a gas transit country, and to resume its role as an electricity exporter. As the spectre of Nord Stream 2 looms over Slovakia, the country is looking for opportunities to offset the negative effects of the offshore project. The transmission system operator Eustream, owned by the government at 51 per cent, is seeking new business opportunities. It has been successful in transporting increased volumes of gas to Ukraine, thanks to the reverse flow. It has been much less successful, however, in selling its new pipeline project, Eastring, to Romania, and in pursuing an interconnection with Poland, an LNG import country. In the meantime, both Eustream and the Slovak government seem to be approaching a compromise with Moscow, which will allow Slovakia to continue transporting Russian gas westwards despite Nord Stream2. It was Poland, however, who made the game-changing decision on the project of Gazprom and its Western partners. The Polish competition authority effectively suspended the joint consortium, complicating the operational and financial prospects of the project.

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Tri tváre slovenskej východnej politiky v roku 2015

Author(s): Alexander Duleba / Language(s): Slovak Publication Year: 0

Reakcie slovenskej politickej scény na udalosti na Ukrajine, ktoré po anexii Krymu Ruskom vo februári 2014 a začatí bojov na Donbase v apríli 2014 prerástli do rusko ukrajinskej krízy, obnažili závažný problém, ktorý sa týka nielen vzťahov SR s vý- chodnými susedmi, ale celej zahraničnej politiky Slovenska: politickí lídri s najväčším demokratickým mandátom zo strany občanov neboli schopní ponúknuť konsenzuálnu interpretáciu dlhodobých zahraničnopolitických záujmov krajiny. Rusko ukrajinská kríza a rozporuplný postoj voči nej predstavuje medzník vo vývine zahraničnej politiky Slovenska od vstupu do EÚ a NATO v roku 2004, pretože znamená stratu vnútorného konsenzu o prioritách zahraničnej politiky.

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Energetické vztahy mezi Maďarskem a Ruskou federací: historie, současnost a perspektivy

Author(s): Lukáš Tichý / Language(s): Czech

The energy relations between Hungary and the Russian Federation have undergone a number of different development stages since 1990. From the establishment of a new energy framework of mutual relations through the deterioration of the energy interaction to the creation of pragmatic friendly relations in the field of energy. Current energy relations are characterized by a significant energy dependence of Hungary on Russia, which is the main supplier of oil, natural gas, coal and electricity. In the future, we can expect a further continuation of closer energy co-operation and the political rapprochement of Hungary to Russia, with Hungary becoming the notional "Trojan Horse" of the Russian Federation within the European Union.

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The Story of the Macedonian Heat Market – How to Reform It?

Author(s): Ana Stojilovska / Language(s): English

Being an EU candidate country brought many reforms in Macedonia including significant energy market restructuring. Having signed the Energy Community Treaty, the country is undergoing many institutional, market and legal reforms. In fact, the relevant energy legal acts have been adopted; new institutional and market actors have been set; and incentives for increasing the share of renewables and improving energy efficiency are being taken. However, the area which remained overshadowed by the other energy reforms is the heat market. Dominated by an extremely high consumption of electricity and partly supplied by an under-developed district heating (DH) which is in the hands of a dominant actor, the Macedonian heat market shows patterns of energy inefficiency and lack of vision for long-term development. In the context of increasing prices of the energy sources and heat bills, the customers are faced with ever growing worries of heating their homes and offices. Despite some developments in the heat sector, one of the possible solutions – the gasification process - progresses slowly and furthermore no significant structural reforms are planned, leaving this energy sector one of the most problematic in Macedonia. The aim of this research is to inspect possible policy solutions for reforming the Macedonian heat market and drafting policy recommendations to the respective Macedonian authorities for the purpose of improving the state of the heat market and heat consumers’ wellbeing.

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Innovation Management, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability (IMES 2019). Proceedings of the 7th International Conference Innovation Management, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability (IMES 2019)

Author(s): / Language(s): English

The 7th International Conference Innovation Management, Entrepreneurship and Sustainability (IMES 2019) took place on May 30 – 31, 2019 at the University of Economics, Prague. The conference was organised by the Department of Entrepreneurship of the University of Economics, Prague, Czech Republic in cooperation with other partners.Sound keynote speakers – Martina Musteen (San Diego State University, USA), Ilan Alon (University of Agder, Norway), Andrew Burke (Trinity Business School, Ireland), Arnim Wiek (Arizona State University, USA), Søren Salomo (Technical University Berlin, Germany) and Roy Thurik (Erasmus University Rotterdam, Netherlands) discussed the trends in the fields of innovation management, entrepreneurship and sustainability. The conference aimed to achieve academic excellence in a regional context and to establish a platform for mutual collaboration, exchange and dissemination of ideas among researchers and professionals.These conference proceedings contain contributions of the conference participants presented during both days of the conference. Authors of papers come from 22 countries all over the world, namely from Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Mexico, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, USA and Vietnam. All these contributions have successfully passed the doubleblind peer-review process.

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Членството на България в Европейския съюз: седем години по-късно

Author(s): / Language(s): English,Bulgarian

This book collects scientific papers and reports presented on the conference ‘The Membership of Bulgaria in the EU: Seven Years Later’ organized by the International Economic Relations and Business Department at University of National and World Economy (UNWE), Sofia, Bulgaria. The conference, held on 3 October 2014, traditionally provided a stage for prominent academics, dedicated PhD students and professionals to discuss contemporary topics related to multiple aspects of the European integration, its effects on the Bulgarian economy, socio-economic environment, international business and relations, finance and politics. The authors in this edition of the book thoroughly reviewed the economy of the Euro area and the EU as it progresses after the latest recession. A Group of authors focuses attention on the banking sector, monetary aspects and inflation, the development in the Economic and monetary union within EU, the Single Supervisory Mechanism and the overall competitiveness and recovery of the European markets. Cross-border partnership with EU neighbours and related instruments, cohesion among the EU member states, experience with the European funds and corresponding public procurement process are another thematic cluster discussed in the book. The researchers increasingly examine subjects related to the energy policy and security, the EU energy policy development and actions in particular. The contributors review matters related to the renewable energy sources, the establishment of the European Energy Union and other institutional and policy developments on supranational level. Another thematic cycle in the book is related to matters concerning the corporate management, business strategy and marketing, new markets expansion and interculturalism. This is intertwined with papers dedicated to the education, human resource involvement and adaptation to the working environment, research and innovation. ‘The Membership of Bulgaria in the EU: Seven Years Later’ is an annually organized academic event with the vision to foster open dialogue, offer contemporary research and exchange of ideas between fellow academics, policy makers, businesses, stakeholders and the public.

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CSD Policy Brief No. 96: Accelerating the Energy Transition in Bulgaria: A Roadmap to 2050

Author(s): Martin Vladimirov,Radostina Primova,Mariya Trifonova / Language(s): English

Bulgaria has been caught between the EU’s net-zero carbon ambitions for 2030 and 2050 and the country’s slow democratisation and diffusion of renewables and energy efficiency. To develop effective policy measures, the Bulgarian government needs to draw evidence-based consistent decarbonisation pathways for each economic sector with annual targets for continuous monitoring. This is especially true considering that there is so far little connection between the government’s own strategic documents (i.e., the 2030 National Development Programme, the National Recovery and Resilience Plan and the National Energy and Climate Plan) and the EU’s long-term objectives for a low-carbon transition. This Policy Brief plots Bulgaria’s options along three scenarios with a 2050 horizon using an innovative decarbonisation transition modelling instrument, called The Calculator. It helps bridge the gap between the complicated integrated climate and energy models and the practical dilemmas of policy-makers preparing Bulgaria’s long-term decarbonisation strategy.

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Climate Protection Litigation on the Rise

Author(s): Szymon Zaręba / Language(s): English

In the last several years, national courts and international institutions have increasingly begun to treat conservative or climate-adverse actions by states as violations of their obligations under international law and human rights. This has been followed by some countries more affected by climate change and engaged in international bodies to put more pressure on Global North states to protect the climate. The sympathetic attitude of international courts towards such complaints may, in the long term, force the need for increased climate ambition or even compensation payments by, among others, Poland.

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Consequences of the Nord Stream 1 and 2 Gas Pipeline Explosions

Author(s): Wojciech Lorenz,Szymon Zaręba / Language(s): English

On 26 September, the Nord Stream 1 (NS1) and Nord Stream 2 (NS2) gas pipelines exploded. The circumstances indicate that sabotage may have taken place. The incident could lead to a further escalation of tensions between Russia and the West. Regardless of who was the perpetrator, NATO and EU countries must strengthen their capacity to protect critical infrastructure.

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Distrust Reigned at COP27

Author(s): Zuzanna Nowak / Language(s): English

The COP27 climate summit, which took place on 6-20 November 2022 in Sharmel-Sheikh, Egypt, led to one important conclusion. The parties to the Conference approved the creation of a loss and damage fund for countries particularly vulnerable to climate change. However, the decision making process and the course of the negotiations make it difficult to talk about the success of the climate summit. The future implementation of the provisions of COP27 is also questionable, as countries that previously promised to provide funds for adaptation and mitigation have not yet fulfilled their obligations.

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The Global Oil Market and the Invasion of Ukraine

Author(s): Zuzanna Nowak / Language(s): English

Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has had the knock-on effect of a sudden increase in oil prices on the world market and OPEC+ countries have not yet been willing to respond to increase supplies. In an effort to limit Russia’s budget revenues from the oil trade, Canada, the U.S. and, the United Kingdom have embargoed Russian crude. While the EU has not joined them, the effects of the rapid changes in the oil market, European consumers will see sharp increases in the prices of goods and services with the European economy potentially slipping into stagflation.

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The Russian Attack on Ukraine and Risks to Nuclear Infrastructure (As of 10:45 on 4 March 2022)

Author(s): Marcin Andrzej Piotrowski / Language(s): English

Russia’s full-scale invasion has increased the risks for civilian nuclear infrastructure in Ukraine. Russian troops so far have captured the former Chernobyl nuclear power plant complex and Europe’s biggest nuclear power plant, Zaporizhzhia in Enerhodar. The intense use of artillery, rockets, and bombs may become a direct threat to various nuclear sector centres in Ukraine. However, the probability for contamination is low. Nevertheless, in case of such a scenario, its impact on Ukraine and its neighbours would be serious, and in an extreme case, catastrophic.

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The OPEC Dispute and the Arab-Saudi Rivalry

Author(s): Sara Nowacka / Language(s): English

The OPEC+ talks planned for 5 July regarding oil-extraction policy have been cancelled because of the SaudiEmirati dispute. The authorities of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have rejected a proposal to extend production limits until the end of 2022. This is another event in the escalating rivalry between Saudi Arabia and the UAE, which will increase the volatility of oil prices.

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Identifying the Missing Links in the Energy Transition

Author(s): Zuzanna Nowak,Marianna Skoczek-Wojciechowska / Language(s): English

Achieving the goals of the European Green Deal (EGD) requires increasing renewables deployment. Meanwhile, as the share of unstable renewable energy sources increases, so does the problem of ensuring the flexibility of power grids. The key challenge for the European energy system is therefore to expand electricity grids, both national and interstate, and invest in the development of energy storage to ensure a balance of demand and supply.

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WAR BY OTHER MEANS. Kremlin’s Energy Policy as a Channel of Influence - A comparative assessment and case studies from Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Romania and Hungary

Author(s): Ana Otilia Nuțu,Sorin Ioniță / Language(s): English

The EU has been increasingly caught up in its own internal struggles over the past years - migration, populism, Brexit - and is facing fundamental challenges to its core principles and values from problematic member states such as Poland, Hungary or Romania. Russia stands only to benefit from such internal divisions. As usual, Moscow has its instruments to exert significant political influence in its “near abroad”, but also to expand it in the formerly communist Central Europe and further towards the West. As the prospects to finalize Kremlin’s pet energy projects Nord Stream 2 and Turkish Stream loom ever closer, this report is meant to ring the alarm bells: excessive reliance on Russian energy is a real threat, not only to energy security of Central and Eastern Europe, but also for the broader, fundamental objective of improving governance across the region, as many of the Eastern Partnership countries can testify. The five case studies we present in this report cover a broad range of problems and very different situations.

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Gospodarka pod respiratorem Skutki pandemii i załamania się cen ropy naftowej dla Rosji

Author(s): Iwona Wiśniewska / Language(s): Polish

Rosyjską gospodarkę dotknęły w marcu 2020 r. jednocześnie dwa wstrząsy – pandemia COVID-19 i załamanie się cen ropy naftowej. Po ponad trzech miesiącach walki z koronawirusem SARS-CoV-2, obowiązkowej samoizolacji i zamrożeniu większości sektorów gospodarki pandemia w Rosji nadal się rozprzestrzenia. Koszty ekonomiczne dynamicznie rosną, a coraz bardziej negatywne skutki odczuwalne są przez rosyjskie społeczeństwo, którego realne dochody zaczęły spadać. Zmęczenie społeczne tzw. lockdownem nasila się tym bardziej, że wdrażany przez rząd program osłonowy dla gospodarki i obywateli jest oszczędny, a wsparcie dociera głównie do wybranych grup społecznych i przedsiębiorstw, w tym kontrolowanych przez członków elity rządzącej. Mimo to, a także wbrew złej sytuacji epidemiologicznej, Kreml przystąpił do odmrażania gospodarki.

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Krach i jego konsekwencje. Rynek ropy w dobie pandemii

Author(s): Szymon Kardaś,Agata Loskot-Strachota,Iwona Wiśniewska / Language(s): Polish

Światowy kryzys gospodarczy wywołany pandemią COVID-19 szczególnie mocno uderzył w sektor naftowy. Zamrożenie gospodarek większości państw świata i zamknięcie obywateli w domach doprowadziło do załamania się rynku transportowego, odpowiadającego za ponad 60% globalnej konsumpcji ropy, a w konsekwencji – do skokowego spadku popytu na surowiec. Brak adekwatnej reakcji jego producentów (w ramach OPEC+) w pierwszych miesiącach pandemii – a wręcz zwiększanie wydobycia – oraz wojna cenowa pomiędzy Arabię Saudyjską i Rosją doprowadziły do nadpodaży, a w konsekwencji drastycznych spadków cen. Mimo że w kwietniu producenci porozumieli się co do redukcji wydobycia od 1 maja o ok. 10%, to może ona skutkować jedynie nieznaczną poprawą sytuacji (popyt w maju ma być mniejszy o 21% w porównaniu z analogicznym okresem 2019 r.). Problem stanowi także niemal całkowite zapełnienie większości magazynów. Choć trudności dotykają wszystkich producentów ropy, to w dłuższym okresie w lepszej sytuacji będą ci najbardziej elastyczni, mający niskie koszty produkcji i rezerwy finansowe. Kryzys silniej odczują gospodarki mocno uzależnione od eksportu tego surowca – m.in. Rosja i Arabia Saudyjska. Spadek wpływów ze sprzedaży uderza w ich finanse publiczne oraz w stabilność waluty. W konsekwencji krach na rynku ropy potęguje szok ekonomiczny wywołany COVID-19 i pogrąża w głębokim kryzysie całe gospodarki. W lepszej sytuacji są USA, największy producent i konsument ropy na świecie, których atutem jest konkurencyjny i elastyczny rynek naftowy, mający do tego mniejszy udział w PKB. Równocześnie niska cena surowca wspomaga działalność poturbowanych przez koronawirusa importerów surowca, m.in. Chin czy UE, stwarza możliwości korzystania z konkurencji i zwiększania dywersyfikacji dostaw. Zyskują zwłaszcza transport i przemysł tworzyw sztucznych, choć ze względu na lockdown i spadek popytu odbiorcy nie są w stanie w pełni wykorzystać niskich cen. Tania ropa w czasach kryzysu stanowi natomiast zagrożenie dla globalnej transformacji energetycznej, może bowiem zniechęcać do inwestowania w zielone technologie, a co za tym idzie – prowadzić do spowolnienia wdrażania polityki klimatycznej na świecie, w tym w UE.

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Biznes i klimat. Dania i Norwegia wobec Baltic Pipe

Author(s): Piotr Szymański,Agata Loskot-Strachota / Language(s): Polish

Państwa nordyckie mają jedne z ambitniejszych w Europie polityk klimatycznych i zużywają coraz mniej węglowodorów, w tym gazu ziemnego. Jednocześnie Dania i Norwegia popierają projekt nowego gazociągu łączącego Norwegię z Polską i Europą Środkową – Baltic Pipe. Dania, przez której terytorium przebiega ta inwestycja, ma dzięki niej zdywersyfikować źródła i zwiększyć bezpieczeństwo dostaw gazu (w szczególności wobec opóźnień w przebudowie infrastruktury głównego duńskiego złoża Tyra). Zmniejszy też koszty przesyłu surowca i użytkowania sieci gazociągowej w czasie malejącego popytu. Norwegia zyska natomiast szerszy dostęp do rosnącego rynku zbytu dla swojego surowca, co zwiększa zasadność inwestycji w nowe złoża na południu norweskiego szelfu. Nowy szlak i zainteresowanie importem gazu są też istotne w dobie coraz powszechniejszego ograniczania zużycia węglowodorów w Europie i wewnątrznorweskiej debaty o przyszłości wydobycia gazu w kontekście kryzysu klimatycznego. Dla obu państw Baltic Pipe jest sposobem na pokazanie „zielonego” oblicza gazu ziemnego, elementem dyplomacji energetyczno-klimatycznej i wspierania transformacji energetycznej w Polsce i Europie Środkowej. Jako taki cieszy się poparciem politycznym w Kopenhadze i Oslo. Istniejący w Danii sprzeciw wobec Baltic Pipe jest niewielki i nie powinien mieć wpływu na realizację inwestycji.

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Sny o potędze - Arktyka w polityce energetycznej Federacji Rosyjskiej

Author(s): Szymon Kardaś / Language(s): Polish

Choć rozwój Arktyki znalazł się wśród priorytetów rosyjskich władz jeszcze w pierwszej dekadzie XXI wieku, to w ostatnim czasie Kreml zwiększył swoje zainteresowanie tym obszarem. Jest on postrzegany jako ważny nie tylko z punktu widzenia interesów politycznych, lecz także z perspektywy wzmacniania potencjału gospodarczego kraju. Dźwignią rozwoju rosyjskiej strefy arktycznej mają być w pierwszej kolejności projekty transportowe i energetyczne, w szczególności w obszarze LNG, nastawione głównie na eksport. Bardziej problematyczna może się okazać realizacja ambitnych przedsięwzięć dotyczących jej części kontynentalnej, zwłaszcza plany znaczącego zwiększenia wydobycia ropy (lansowany przez Rosnieft Wostok Oil) i węgla w regionie. Największym wyzwaniem będzie natomiast zagospodarowanie szelfu arktycznego. To skutek nie tylko braku spójnej strategii władz, ale głównie nieopłacalności projektów szelfowych, co wynika z czynników ekonomicznych (wysokie koszty, niepewne rynki zbytu), technologicznych i politycznych (sankcje). O ile eksport LNG i ropy wydobywanej na kontynencie może doprowadzić do wzrostu znaczenia Północnej Drogi Morskiej, o tyle stagnacja w projektach szelfowych zapewne stanie na przeszkodzie temu, by w najbliższej dekadzie zasoby Arktyki zastąpiły wyczerpujące się konwencjonalne złoża ropy i gazu. Tym samym rosyjskie arktyczne sny o potędze mogą spełnić się tylko częściowo.

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