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During the last two decades, modern anthropology and historiography both had tendencies to revise the standpoint that the „discovery“ of America is one of the „highlights“ of mankind. Genocide committed over Native Americans („Indians“) was justified with an idea of „progress“ in the name of which millions have been sacrificed. Today, there are opinions that these sacrifices must be put in the right place and context. Much attention is given to cultural relativism, as well as to understanding and accepting the Other with all his differences, and, at the same time, to „discovering“ of ourselves through the Other. The great debate between Bartolomé de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda within the Roman Catholic Church, took place during the 1550 and 1551. It was the first and the last case that the nation of colonizers opened a formal investigation about the justness of its method of spreading the Empire. The investigation had been led about the question of justness of declaring war to Native Americans before they were taught about Christian faith. Two sides based their arguments on the Bible, teachings of the Holy Fathers, late- medieval thought and the laws of that time. The result of the debate is still not quite clear, because both sides claimed they won in it. The discovery of America in 1492 played the key role in the development of European humanistic thought. Before this event, on the opposite hemisphere nations who did not know for each other lived for centuries. Their encounter was dramatic for both sides, and its consequences were far-reaching. It was an encounter of „new worlds“ in an already existing one. New streams of thought derived from this encounter and different practices were established. Among them were the negative ones, like genocide, ethnocide and various forms of slavery, but there was also a comprehension that all people are basically the same, though they differ in their appearance and way of life.
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The same deep religious feelings that moved men to become heretics played a decisive role in the development of the two monastic orders that contributed most to the fight against heresies and strengthening of the organization of the Western Church. Life and work of the two founders of mendicant orders, St. Francis and St. Dominic, are crucial for the understanding of spirituality, church life and social development of the western world of the 13th century. It is important to lighten up their characters and achievement from the scientific standpoint.
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Patriarch Gavrilo left distinct impression on Russian secular and ecclesiastic dignitaries. On the basis of that positive impression, he managed to improve the position of the Serbian church before the Russian authorities in general. The fact that he was personally respected by Russian authorities probably led to a wrong impression about the results of his stay in Russia. Russians did respect him, but not more than they respected other patriarchs of that time. However, his decision to leave Russia, although he previously stated that he wants to settle there permanently, tells us that he could not fit into the Russian way of life. Specificity of relations among the Russian classes of that time was often an insurmountable obstacle for many immigrants in Russia. Apparently, he was not an exception.
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Religious teachings that are opposite to the official position of the Church are called heresies. During the first centuries of Christianity heresies were most often born because of the wrong understanding of Christ’s nature. The heretical movements that had tendencies to bring back the Western Church to the apostolic roots appeared later. Many of the heretical teachings rejected Sacraments and other church institutions. Combining in itself western Gospel heresies and Bogomil influences from the East, a new heresy was born in the 12th century – Cathars. At the same time, two groups of heretics appeared – Humiliats and Waldensians, movements based on the Gospel and their members wanted the right to preach among Christians. Friars would have never managed to deal with heresies without the Inquisition. The Inquisition existed wherever it was necessary, where rulers allowed it to act. The Inquisition in Southern France had worked for a whole century. Around 1330’s, Cathars, being without political protection, under constant repression, had almost disappeared from all areas, except from the most isolated ones.
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In the season of 1931-32 a house belonging to Christians was discovered. One of its smaller rooms was fitted out as a chapel. Its walls are covered with the most interesting and earliest Christian paintings that have come down to us from the East. How much earlier than 200 A.D. these iconographical forms were first invented, where, and by whom, we are not yet ready to say.
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This Introduction contains a brief description of the Maximus’ writings and their interpretations. The central topics are Maximus as a philosopher and his knowledge of philosophical sources. Some lines in the development of modern research are described.
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From the initial community which consisted of only a few eucharisitc meetings, the Church quickly became an organism of universal proportions, which caused a consequential development of her organizational structure. This was especially the case after the reformation of social status of the Church and her later function within Eastern Roman Empire, but also in modem times. Besides identifying the precise historical organizational patterns and key factors that affected their evolution, it is also needed to determine their relationship towards essential ecclesiological foundations.
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riars challenged heresies offering ortodox alternative to the poverty and preaching of the cathars and waldensians. They attracted the larger part of the apostolic movemant. The friars governed church life of the 13.th century and helped to postpone division in the Western Church for 150 years. Mendicant orders were one of the most important elements within the Western Church. Their most significant achievemant during the 13. th century was defence of spiritual and intellectual supremacy of the Church from attacks of heresy and new knowledge. The friars had the leading role in adjustment of the church teachings to the new knowledge. Their basic task in the fight against heresies was the leadership of the Inquisition. Their missions in far-away countries were the most impressive. They made a large, well-organized army under the immediate command of Pope.
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József Péczeli (1750–1792), a Calvinist minister educated at some of the outstanding German, Swiss and Dutch centres of knowledge, is mostly known for his editorial and publishing activities, including his translations of Voltaire’s dramas and epic works. However, this paper is meant to analyze the issues of calling and absolution as presented in “Moral Semons” edited and published by the “erudite minister of Révkomárom”. It argues that Péczeli’s sermons tend to show the influence of eighteenth century English theologians, thereby disseminating the ideas of modern practical theology, as well as interpreting and adapting them to the needs of young ministers serving in the communities of the various layers of contemporary Hungarian society.
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This paper traces certain psycho–cultural aspects of the first period in the Byzantine iconoclasm (7th century) and tends to demonstrate the measure in which it, as a movement, has a broader secular program in its foundations and in its ranges. On one hand, its forerunners are various heresies which from the earliest centuries of Christianity latently existed in the Eastern Roman Empire. Judaism and Islam are somewhat connected to all of this. On the other hand, for some reason, certain saturation with monastic spirituality could be felt (in the period when monasticism was at its peak), and the elements of superstition emerged as well as aversion towards “discipline”, mysticism and conservatism. A certain parallel with some western European social tendencies and movements in the 14th to 16th century could be found, as well as with the hesyhastic conflict of the Late Byzantine period.
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This paper aims to present the missionary and reform activities of Boniface, the most important AngloSaxon missionary in Western Europe. AngloSaxon missionaries greatly contributed to the process of Christianization of Germanic tribes. Being the most important AngloSaxon religious representative, Boniface did more than merely perform missionary work. He received from the Pope the task of reforming the Church in Germany (eliminating the growing divergence between the clergy and the people) and returning the Frankish Church to Rome’s sphere of influence. The task received from Rome Boniface managed to accomplish only in part due to the bitter resistance of the Frankish clergy who did not tolerate him because he preached in their domain and wanted to subjugate them to Rome. Boniface had a fair relationship with Charles Martel, but not as close one as Willibrord. Charles Martel helped him when he preached in areas that were not in the sphere of influence of the Frankish bishops. However, when Boniface received a pallium from the pope, he did not get a chair, nor was that potential chair elevated to the rank of archbishop because of the resistance of the Frankish bishop who did not want Boniface to infringe on their independence from Rome. Boniface became the titular archbishop and papal legate, but without a diocese to govern, in the part of the state he ruled. The agreement between Carloman and his brother Pepin enabled him to get a chair in Cologne, where he could not be enthroned, but was later appointed to Mainz. The withdrawal of Carloman to the monastery of Monte Cassino weakened Boniface’s position in Francia. As a result, he had to implore the abbot of the monastery of SaintDenis, Fulrad, to influence Pepin that Lull, whom Boniface appointed as his heir, could succeed him to the chair of the bishop of Mainz. Boniface’s successors maintained contacts with the Frankish rulers, using their logistic assistance in the baptism of pagans. The importance of Boniface as a prominent member of the Frankish Church was recognized after his martyrdom, and he became the first saint of the Carolingian period.
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The paper discusses the difficult position of the Serbian Orthodox Church and clergy in Bosanska Krajina after the 1858 Rebellion in Krajina. Though the reforms introduced by the Porte granted the right to reconstruct and build new Orthodox churches, Muslim extremists hindered these initiatives in many towns and places, including Bosanska Gradiška, Bosanska Dubica, Prijedor, Banja Luka, Bihać, Bosanski Petrovac and Glamoč. The Rebellion in Krajina of 1858 left the Serbian Orthodox Church in Bosanska Krajina devastated. Dozens of churches were set on fire or torn down, including the two monasteries–pillars of the Orthodoxy in Bosanska Krajina–Rmanj from the 15th century and Moštanica from the 16th century. Many priests had been arrested or killed. The year later, in 1859, the Safer Order settled relations between the Turkish authorities and Serbs, however, the groups of powerful Muslim leaders continued to obstruct the attempts to reconstruct destroyed churches and build new ones. In the Bihać area, Tahir–bey Kulenović and Mustaj–bey Alajbegović from Kulen–Vakuf lead one such group and in Banja Luka Nazif–aga Djumišić. Later on, the relaxation of the Porte stands and political efforts of the deputy in the Orthodox Peoples’ Assembly in Constantinople Gavro Vučković Krajišnik in the 1860s and 1870s resulted in reconstruction of destroyed and construction of new churches in Bosanska Krajina, in Ramići near Ključ, Gorinja, Bukovača and Kolunić near Bosanski Petrovac, Bihać, Jezero near Bihać, Banja Luka, Stari Majdan, Oštra Luka near Stari Majdan, Glamoč, Bosanska Gradiška, Bosanski Novi, Hašani near Bosanska Krupa, Prijedor, Busnovi near Prijedor and Sanski Most. Monasteries Rmanj, Moštanica and Liplje from the 15th century near Kotor Varoš had been reconstructed. The Orthodox church started to stregthen its position with establishing of the Orthodox seminary in Banja Luka in 1866 that became the main defence from the Muslim extremism and, even more important, increasing Catholic proselitism.
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