"Chvála básnického umenia" (Laudes artis poeticae, 1461) z pera Levočana Christophora Petschmessingsloera

Author(s): Mária Novacká / Language(s): Slovak / Issue: 2/2008

The article deals with the activities of an important fraternity of pastors from Spiš (Szepes, Zips) region founded in 1204 who resided in Levoča (Lőcse, Leutschau), especially with the work of one of its members, Christoph Petschmessingsloer. In addition to providing information on the life of the author of The Praise for the Art of Poetry (Laudes artis poeticae) from 1461, the study describes the circumstances of the origin of this work. The greatest attention is paid to an analysis of the text of this lecture on the art of poetry and an assessment of its rhetorical characteristics that represented an introduction to Satires by the Roman satirist Decimus Junius Juvenalis. For its first part, the poetic praise of art and poetry is characteristic; the second part speaks of rhetorical and poetic technique, verse forms together with terms of poetic expression. The work is concluded with a mythological story inspired by Ovid's Metamorphoses about nine muses that represent nine human activities and methods of the acquisition of knowledge.

"Ustawienie o piercach a prokuratorzech albo o rzecznikoch" : ze studiów nad staropolską terminologią prawniczą

Author(s): Aleksander Zajda / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 23/1990

Der vorliegende Aufsatz ist ein Versuch, 15 altpolnische Wörter mit der Bedeutung ‘vicarius, advocatus, patronus’ und derer Geschichte im Laufe bis 1600 im Lichte der Wortfeldtheorie darzustellen. Schon im 15. Jhd. befinden sich im Zentrum des Wortfeldes die Bezeichnungen pierca. prokurator, rzecznik - die wir im Titel (Zitat aus der in der Mitte des 15. Jhds. entstandenen Übersetzung der früheren polnischen Rechte) sehen - und zachodica. Andere 11 Bezeichnungen bilden zu dieser Zeit Peripherie des Feldes. Aber auch die Glieder des Zentrums sind differenziert - pierca ist ein masowisches Wort, prokurator - grosspolnisch; nur rzecznik und zachodica sind gesamtpolnisch. Infolge der weiteren Entwicklung befinden sich schon in der Mitte des 16. Jhds. nur prokurator und rzecznik im Zentrum; pierca und zachodica verschwinden überhaupt aus dem Wortfeld, geschweige andere Kompenenten. Ende des 16. Jhds. ist ein ausschliesslicher Glied des Zentrums prokurator - sein Sieg ist auf den damaligen Zustrom des lateinischen Wortgutes in die polnische Rechtsterminologie zurückzuführen.

(Wild)haus w Bezławkach (Bayselauken, Bäslack)

Uwagi na temat budownictwa warownego zakonu niemieckiego w późnośredniowiecznych Prusach

Author(s): Krzysztof Kwiatkowski / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 2/2016

The article constitutes a collection of remarks concerning military aspects of the construction and functioning of the Teutonic castle in Bezławki (Bayselauken, Bäslack) in the last decades of the 14th century. Speculations included in the article refer to opinions expressed by the authors of the collective monograph about the late medieval settlement complex in Bäslack published in 2013. It presents the findings of archeological research in the castle and the village in the years 2008-2012. Remarks presented in the article concern three out of six problems which are considered the most essential. While it goes beyond doubt that the castle played an important defensive role, the hypothesis of it being a “fortified camp” for the army during military actions of the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and Ruthenians has been undermined. It is not possible to consider it to play a military role on a significant strategic level, as do the authors of the monograph of 2013. In the second part of the article the author undermines the hypothesis about the “systematic” character of the complex of fortifications situated on the eastern Prussian border. If the castle in Bäslack was indeed part of some defensive system, it could operate on the local level and consist of an insignificant number of elements including longitudinal fortifications constituting the so called “Landwehr”. The next issue addressed by the author was a problem of the typology of the term “wildhaus”. As in the 14th century the term connoted the location of the fortification on the border of the forest, the author shows a far-reaching morphological diversity of fortifications on the eastern outskirts of the Prussian state, which were or could be classified as “wildhauses”. Thus, a “wildhaus” cannot be classified as a morphological type of a fortification. The typology of fortifications based on the morphological criteria cannot be connected with the typology based on the administrative and terminological criteria. Archeological examination of the Bäslack fortification evinces its major cognitive potential and makes us aware of how little is known about the functioning of minor fortifications in late medieval Prussia. Further research in this field belongs to one of the most important elements of historical science in the Prussian regional dimension and related branches of science.

,„Și încă a pustiit şi sfânta mănăstire”. Mănăstirea Govora și un gest de putere de la mijlocul secolului al XV-lea

Author(s): Ramona Neacşa / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: XXXIII/2015

This paper analyses the destruction of the Govora Monastery by the boyar Albu the Great in mid fifteenth-century Wallachia. The main contention of the article is that this sacrilegious act was embedded in the struggles between different Wallachian noble groups competing for power. Thus, by devastating the monastery, Albu the Great was trying to strengthen his own position, while undermining that of the founder of the monastery, no other than Vlad the Devil, the lord of Wallachia. The Govora monastery played an important role in supporting and legitimizing Vlad’s rule, therefore any act of violence directed against it was actually aimed to its founder. A locus of history and legitimacy, the monastery had a significant capital of symbolic power that could be manipulated, destroyed or, on the contrary, restored. This is precisely what happed with Govora in the second half of the fifteenth century, when Vlad the Devil’s descendents took care to restore the family monastic foundation. Thus, Vlad the Impaler punished Albu the Great and his entire kin and, afterwards, Vlad the Monk and Radu the Great re-established the monastic estate by buying back two of its former villages, Glodul and Hinţa. The purpose of this article is to suggest that the fifteenth-century Wallachian monasteries were not solely a network of religious and economic centres, but also hubs of political power.

1468/9 Tahririne Göre Bosna Sancağinda Timâr

Author(s): Hatice Oruç / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 67/2018

The summary defter MC.076 held at Atatürk Library (listed in the Muallim Cevdet Manuscript Catalogue) is the oldest surviving tahrîr defter drawn up after the establishment of the Bosnian Sanjak. It includes invaluable information on the timâr system and transfer of the new conquered region over to Ottoman rule, making it priceless for historians working in this field. The content of the defter may be evaluated under two categories: I) The original records of the defter arranged between 1468 and 1469; II) The marginal notes that were added to the defter on various dates between 1469 and 1477, following its completion and approval. The original entries, covering the years between 1468 and 1469, show the distribution of ‘khâss’, ‘zeâmet’ and ‘timâr’ to the members of the military class in exchange for their service. The marginal notes added later on show the modifications made to the amount of timâr allocated to the persons in question, such as its cancellation, transfer or increase. In addition to providing the names of the timâr holders, the defter also contains addition information about them. This study will focus on the timâr entries in the 1468/9 dated summary (mücmel) defter in order to evaluate the timâr system and its distribution in the Bosnian Sanjak.

15. Yüzyilda Hitay’da Bir Timurlu Sefir: Giyaseddin Nakkaş’in Hitay Gözlemleri

Author(s): Betül Mutlu / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 67/2011

Hıtay Sefaretnamesi is our oldest known travel book written by Hoca Gıyaseddin Nakkaş in Persian in 1422 and transleted into Ottoman Turkish in 1728 by Küçükçelebizade İsmail Asım. Mirza Baysungur of the Timurid Mirza’s was commissioned as an envoy Hoca Gıyaseddin Nakkaş , while performing the embassy official duty, has not only satisfied with the physical observations but also dealt with social and cultural structure of Hıtay society and transferred them to his prepared report in detail. İn this regard Hıtay Sefaretnamesi can not be ignored as a source is important in the 15th century research as well as being our first travel book. The present paper analyses the narration and observation notes of the Hıtay Sefaretnamesi.

15. Yüzyilda Niğde Şehrinde Iskân Ve Mahalleler

Author(s): Nevzat Topal / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 01/2017

In this study, the settlements and districts of Nigde Province during the 15th century are reviewed. Nigde was under the rule of Karamanids for a long time during the 15th century, and in the second half of the century, it fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The districts of Nigde were identified through the cadastral record books and charter of pious foundation certificates drafted by the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 15th and the early 16th centuries. It is considered that the district names mentioned in these books existed during the rule of Karamanids. The first source referring to those districts in Nigde is the charter of pious foundation of Ali the Karamanid dating back to 1415. There are three district names in this charter, yet they seem to be unmentioned in the other sources cited in this study. In charter certificates prepared in 1476 and 1483 after the province came under the rule of Ottoman Empire, there are references to some mosque and district names belonging to Nigde. Moreover, the cadastral record books prepared in the early 16th century refers to some 29 districts in Nigde. Except for some of the district names specified in the aforesaid cadastral record book, most of the names existed to a great extent in also the Karamanid era. In the cadastral record book drafted in the early 16th century, two non-muslim districts are identified and it is possible that these districts also existed during the 15th century.

15. YY TİMUR DEVRİ KELÎLE ve DİMNE’LERİNDE Kİ ASLAN İLE ŞETREBE HİKÂYESİ MİNYATÜRLERİNİN KARŞILAŞTIRMALI ANALİZLERİ

Author(s): Nuran Öztürk,Şehnaz Biçer Özcan / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 45/2020

This article includes a review of the miniatures in one of the four manuscripts of the Kalila and Dimna manuscripts to painted by the 15th century Timur era, the miniaturists of the Herat and Shiraz art schools. These manuscripts are registered in the inventory numbers of TSMK R.1022, TSMK R.1023, SK Fatih3682 and İnebey K. Hüseyin Ç.763. The first three manuscripts are miniaturized in the art schools of the Herat and Şhiraz regions. One of the manuscript was painted by artist from Shiraz on the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul in the 15th century.The story was preferred because of this distinctive reason. One of the manuscript was painted by artist from Shiraz\ Tebriz on the Ottoman Empire in Istanbul in the 15th century. The story was preferred because of this distinctive reason. The story covered in the research has been handled with an iconographic approach and has been told by the fictional evaluation of the styles of different periods. Pattern analysis, page layout, color evaluation, technical image and concept comparisons between periods are finally found with emphasis.

15.-19. YÜZYILLAR ARASINDA OSMANLI İMPARATORLUĞU’NUN ÇERKEZİSTAN’DAKİ İSLAMI YAYMA SİYASETİNE KISA BİR BAKIŞ

Author(s): Yusuf Yildiz / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 13/2021

The oldest known religious beliefs of Circassians, an ancient Caucasian people, are natural religions. From the 6th century, Christianity also spread in Circassia and continued its influence until the 15th century. The spread of Islam continued in the region in the 13th century under the influence of the Golden Horde. After conquest of Istanbul in 1453 by the Ottomans, this spreading process accelerated due to the region’s isolation from the source of Christianity. However, until the risk arose that Circassia could fall into the hands of the Russians in the 18th century, the Ottoman government concentrated mainly on its economic and political interests in the region and did not pursue a planned and systematic policy to spread Islam there. The Ottoman government, which wanted to win over the Circassians because of the increasing Russian danger, tried to achieve this goal mainly by strengthening Islam among them. Ferah Ali Pasha, who was sent to the region for this purpose in 1780, achieved great success by respecting the customs and lifestyle of Circassians, offering them rich gifts and building kinship ties through marriages. As a result of the successful policy of the Ottomans to spread Islam, which continued in the 19th century until the region was conquered by the Russians, Islam became the most common religion among Circassians.

16. Yüzyıl Osmanlısında Kur’ân Okuma Karşılığı Ücret Alma Tartışmaları: Birgivî Zeyrekzâde Örneği

Author(s): Abdullah Kavalcıoğlu / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 54/2020

One type of the pious foundations which subsisted from the fifteenth century until the collapse of the empire in the Ottoman Empire, which is described as a civilisation of foundation, is the money foundations. Among these money foundations, there are foundations established for the recitation of Qur’an. These foundations, like the others, had subsisted till the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, but discussions about them continued. One of the works which discusses the recitation of Qur'ān for a fee is the epistle named as “İnkāzü’l-hâlikîn” written by Birgivī Mehmed Efendī (d. 1573). He alleges in this epistle, which is well known among the modern researchers and about which there are some studies, that the recitation of Qur’an for a fee is not licit. This epistle is not only discussed today, but at the time it was written it had been discussed among the scholars. For example, Zeyrekzāda Emrullah al-Husaynī had written a refutation titled as “Risala fi cavazi akhzi’l-ucrati li-qıraati’l-Qur’an” against the epistle of Birgivi. Also, this is very rare work that discussed widely with the proofs that the recitation of Qur'ān is licit. In this article, the views of two authors will be treated comparatively only in terms of common points. The aim of this study is to discuss the juridical issue which has a social aspect from the view of two authors that have different approaches.

1819 YILINDA ASTRAHAN’DA BASILAN MUSA’NIN İLK KİTABI “YARATILIŞ” ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME

Author(s): Döne Arslan / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 40/2018

Kypchak Turkish was used in two different geographical regions. On one hand, It became the language of the Kypchak who lived in today’s Russia, Ukraine and Caucasian which had been in Golden Horde between 13th – 15th centuries, it was used to write Codex Cumanicus by the Italian and the German, on the other hand again in this area it created a written language developed with Armenian letters in long centuries, and also it continued as not only spoken language but also written language in Egypt and Syria and as the literary language of Muslim Memluk Kypchak from the middle of 13th century to the beginning of 16th language. There are some phonetic and stylistic differences among the languages of these three different societies. It is predicted that that the work was translated by Charles Fraser who had started to work as the assistant of H. Brunton in Karas in 1803. H. Burton who translated many religious books into Turkish and Tatar and his follower Charles Fraser adopted the natives writing tradition. Fraser based the Ottoman translation of Ali Bey by learning Karai language, Astrahan and Orenburg Kypcak and he produced the Creation work in other words “The First Book of Moses”.

2013-2014 YILI EDİRNE YENİ SARAY KAZISI İZNİK VE KÜTAHYA SERAMİKLERİ

Author(s): Hasan Uçar / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 03/2019

The content of this work consists of the ceramics of İznik and Kütahya which were found in excavation carried out in Edirne Yeni Saray in 2013-2014. This palace began to be built at the end of the first half of 15th century and thereafter it was continuously used by Ottoman sultans. The palace, which started to lose its significance in classical period from 18th century, entered into the process of demolition by means of Ottoman-Russia war. Besides the architectural features of the palace with the excavation works made in different years in Republic Period, the things used in the palace are also endeavoured to be unearthed. The ceramics of İznik and Kütahya from these materials have a crucial position alongside of imported ceramics which were used in the palace. Even though the adornment techniques are the same, these ceramics of which colours and motifs show difference have the characteristics of a document in terms of reflection of pleasure approach of a period of Ottoman. While the blue-white ceramics show the adornment approach of end of 15th century and first half of 16th century, multi-coloured ones reflect the adornment approach of Ottoman entirely in solid-coloured and multi-coloured İznik ceramics. It is possible to see single and multi-coloured dyed style of Kütahya in cups which are most notably form and a couple of part of bowl in Kütahya ceramics. While Chinese influence is observed in some of these samples that are dated as 18th century, some of them shows us the style of ceramists from Kütahya entirely. In this work, it is aimed to determine the position of ceramics of İznik and Kütahya which were found in 2013-2014 within Ottoman ceramics.

30 май 1453 г. Византийският воин: опит за реконструкция на външния облик и снаряжението

Author(s): Stanimir Dimitrov / Language(s): Bulgarian / Issue: 1/2015

The paper try to give answer on the questions about arms and armour used from Byzantine warriors in the final years of life of independent Greek States and in the remaining year still the end of 15thc when Ottoman rule will put an end on the military tradition brought by different social layers. The author’s opinion is that tracing post Byzantine society we can reveal weapons and tactics used by Romaioi before capture of Constantinople by the turks. Pivotal pointsare Italian sources from 1470s that mention a new type of military formation. Mentioned by Marino Sanudo, Philip de Comin and Molines like “stradiotto, stradioti”, they will become very popular in European war theatre. Besides written sources are used representations in works of art. They represent warriors with no typical for Western Europe outfit.

A 15th CENTURY DEPOSIT OF OTTOMAN COINS DISCOVERED IN CRIMEA

Author(s): Vitaliy Romankevich,Dmitriy Yanov / Language(s): English / Issue: 3/2019

The article deals with a deposit discovered in late 2012 in the foothills of the Crimean Mountains by a private person. The deposit contains 44 Ottoman silver coins (akches). 1 akche was minted in the last year of Murad II’s first reign (1444), while the others – during Mehmed II’s second reign (1451– 1481). These coins are dated AH 855 (5 pcs.) and 865 (38 pcs.) and were issued during 1451–1460 and 1460–1470 respectively. The majority of coins from the deposit were minted at Rumelian mints – Edirne, Novar and Serez (84.09%), while the share of Anatolian mints – Amasya, Ayasluk and Bursa, is substantially lower (13.64%), since most of the Ottoman silver mines of that time were located in Rumelia. A proportion of mints among the AH 865 akches, which are the youngest coins in the composition of the deposit under consideration, and its comparison with the similar hoards from the Romanian lands (Schinetea, Piua Petrii) allowed to assume that its lost or concealment was in the second half of the 1460s – early 1470s. During this period an influx of Ottoman coins to Crimea, as well as an activity of Ottoman merchants in this region has probably increased as a result of the Ottoman conquest of the largest commercial centers in Southern Black Sea region (Amastris, Sinop and Trebizond) and weakening of Genoese trade. One can not state with confidence that the deposit under consideration might be associated with the Ottoman campaign on the Genoese Gazaria and Principality of Theodoro in 1475, since in its composition the AH 875 akches, issued in 1470–1480, are absent.

A bölcs Iuvenalis és a neolatin bukolika

Author(s): Lajos Zoltán Simon / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 2/2016

This study analyses the bucolic poems of three humanist poets of the 15th century, Caspar Tribrachus, Baptista Mantuanus and Faustus Andrelinus, whose eclogues are characterized by both a realistic mode of depiction utterly differing from the idealized landscape of the pastoral and the influence of Roman satire. Although in the case of Mantuanus several allusions had already been noted by his contemporaneous commentator, Jodocus Badius, except for the obvious inspiration of Eclogue 5 by Juvenal, little attention has been devoted to the allusions to Persius and Juvenal by recent research. Th e analyses aims at a more thorough examination of this influence, dealing not only with the imagery and the vocabulary of the eclogues, but also with imitations of idyllic pictures from the satirists, as well as with the cases of double imitation, where the allusions to satire simultaneously parody classical passages of Vergil. Further, the important role of both Juvenal’s Umbricius and the medieval commentaries on Juvenal in the forming of Umber, the key figure in Mantuanus ’ eclogues, shall be pointed out. Finally, on the basis of the theoretical background of the two genres and their possible interrelations, it shall be argued that the satire played a decisive role in the establishment of this new variant of pastoral poetry, which is realistic in its imagery and didactic in its intention.

A comparative perspective on the oath of a new burgher

Author(s): Hana Komárková / Language(s): English / Issue: 3/2021

The role of immigration in the life of the late medieval and early modern town was important . A key part of this process (and best captured in the sources of urban origin) was the integration of a new burgher into existing urban social and economic structures . Like most of the power-economic relations of this time, the individual-burgher relation-ship to the group was based on mutual guarantees confirmed by an oath taken by a newly-accepted member . The essay will focus on the relevance and usability of early modern and modern codifications of urban oaths to explore the development of urban structures in the late Middle Ages and Early Modernity . It will also focus on comparing the content of the oath of the new burgher both in the general context of the oaths used in the urban environment and in the context of the specific development of the urban community in the area under consideration (Silesian and north Moravian towns based on Magdeburg rights) compared to the situation in the Western part of Holy Roman Empire.

A Conflict for Values in the Origins and at the Beginning of the Thirteen Years’ War

Author(s): Stefan Kwiatkowski / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2016

W przededniu wojny trzynastoletniej naprzeciwko siebie stanęły dwie koncepcje ładu krajowego: zakonna i stanowa. Ścierały się one ze sobą od dłuższego czasu, aż w końcu stały się nie do pogodzenia. Zakon, jeśli chodzi o zasadę, stał na gruncie priorytetu prawa bożego, z zasady niezmiennego, wiecznego. Jego poddani, skonfederowani w Związku Pruskim, powoływali się na to, co przysługuje poddanemu z racji otrzymanych przywilejów, prawa pozytywnego, pojmowanego jako gwarancja zachowania sprawiedliwości pomiędzy ludźmi.Podstawą sporu o wartości stało się pojęcie ius i pochodne od niego: iustitia i iustum, zaprowadzające ład w stosunkach między ludźmi, regulujące to, co przysługiwało człowiekowi w relacjach z innymi ludźmi. Jako duchowny pan kraju stał na stanowisku Zakon, że iustitia opiera się na autorytecie prawa kanonicznego i cesarskiego, następnie władzy krajowej wyposażonej w przyrodzone prerogatywy (znany jest cytat opinii brata zakonnego wobec poddanych: „my jesteśmy waszym prawem”). Krzyżacy i ich poplecznicy twierdzili, że związkowcy występują przeciw słusznym prawom Zakonu i Kościoła, że chociaż na mocy iustitia poddani są zobowiązani do posłuszeństwa i lojalności, to jako ludzie o określonym, wysokim statusie postępują buntowniczo, tym samym niegodnie.Związkowcy powoływali się na przywileje, należące do prawa krajowego. Na nich opierali poczucie swej godności (ehrbar Leute) i subiektywne rozumienie sprawiedliwości. Postawy tej nie można zrozumieć bez uwzględnienia jej kulturowego kontekstu. Według związkowców, na mocy ogólnego wyobrażenia o prawie i sprawiedliwości, przywódcy zakonni i prałaci mieli być związani powinnością zachowania sprawiedliwości człowieka względem drugiego człowieka, oddania tego, co mu się należy. Dlatego w argumentacji związkowej pojęcie sprawiedliwości odnosi się do praw ludzi, którzy są poddanymi władzy zakonnej, ale wyposażonymi w prawne gwarancje. Ius i iustitia miały być fundamentem z jednej strony ładu krajowego (zapewnienie dobra powszechnego, w szczególności pokoju i sprawiedliwych sądów), z drugiej zaś – gwarancją czci i honoru poddanych. To założenie w znacznej mierze określało faktyczne stosunki poddanych z władztwem zakonnym już w okresie wcześniejszym. Jednakże w połowie XV w. przedstawiciele Zakonu i Związku Pruskiego zradykalizowali swe pozycje. Krzyżacy dążyli do umocnienia swoich władczych prerogatyw w kraju. W argumentacji związkowców, zasługującej zresztą na uwzględnienie przez historyka jej antropologicznych aspektów, Zakon pogwałcił prawa mieszkańców Prus, a przez swoje zarzuty wobec nich zniesławił ich i zakwestionował publicznie, na szerokim forum ich poczucie godności, honoru i prawowierności.

A császári univerzalizmus Zsigmond diplomáciájának gyakorlatában (A franciaországi és angliai látogatás tanulságai)

Author(s): Sándor Csernus / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 3/2017

Sigismund of Luxembourg was the longest reigning monarch in the history of the independent Kingdom of Hungary. During fifty-year reign, significant changes occurred in the history of Western Christianity, and by extension, Hungary. The Western dynasties (Anjou, Luxemburg, Habsburg) were living a period of successful expansion in Central-Eastern Europe during the Anjou reign in Hungary and the Luxembourg reign in Bohemia. It's becoming more and more obvious that several aspects of Sigismund's rule in Hungary can also be considered parts of this process. The Luxembourgs were aiming to establish strong positions in Central Europe, and to acquire the title of Emperor. The study examines Sigismund's international policy, which encompassed an uncharacteristically large area, as well as the methods of such policy. The "crisis" of the medieval West brought several common problems to light, which were economic, societal, organizational, political, military and ideological in nature. One of the most obvious manifestations of the division of Christianitas and the waste of resources was the Hundred Years' War. The answer to the schism was reformatio in capite et in membris, in the case of the Hundred Years' War it was peace mediation, and the reaction to the outside threat was a new Crusade. Sigismund used the widespread notion of conciliarism to convoke the Council of Constance, and he was commissioned by the Council to launch a mediation mission during the Hundred Years' War as Imperator Pacificus. The aforementioned crisis brought about the renaissance of imperial universalism, as well as the general strengthening of the Emperor's position. Sigismund successfully solved some of these problems, even though his solutions were controversial. Sigismund strongly depended on the principle of imperial supremacy, that could be derived from imperial universalism. However, this obviously infringed the sovereignty of the big national monarchies. His endeavors sparked overt or covert opposition from his partners. This is clearly visible in the French and English stages of his mediation attempt, which included several symbolic events. These events were interpreted somewhat differently by English, French, Belgian, and German historiographies. The study examines this process by comparing sources, and confirms that the alliances in Canterbury and Calais (1416), formed instead of peace mediation, ensured the undisturbed operation of the Council of Constance, and created a temporary balance between the rivaling Western powers. However, this balance was tainted by internal tension, and it foreshadowed the final, desperate struggles of the Hundred Years' War. The decline of conciliarism and imperial universalism also decreased the effectiveness of Sigismund's actions. This study considers the process to be the culmination of Sigismund's diplomacy based on universalism, and at the same time the confirmation of the national component in the big Western monarchies ("the king is Emperor in his kingdom") in a new context, which means the consolidation of the concept of sovereignty.

A decima et nona az Anjou- és a Zsigmond-korban

Author(s): Éva B. Halász / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 04/2019

The terms of decima et nona pars/partes appear in charters in the fourteenth century, in cases where the parties agreed in one of them paying the other a given sum. It occurs in cases of pledging, purchase, redemption of daughters’ quarter, termination of lawsuits by agreement alike. The sum, which could be termed „fee” in the modern sense of the word, was paid – if not otherwise stipulated – by the receiving party to the judge or to the issuer of the charter who fixed the agreement.

A Dragon Slayer Graffi to Drawing in Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (modern Istanbul)

Author(s): Thomas Thomov / Language(s): English / Issue: 1-2/2019

This paper deals with a rare example of a graffi to drawing from the church of Hagia Sophia with a complete Christian scene of a warrior on horseback in western attire, who thrusts his long spear into the gaping jaws of a beast under the horse’s hooves. The drawing represents St George and, taking into account the types of armor depicted, the creation of the graffi to may be dated to the 1430s–1470s.