(Wild)haus w Bezławkach (Bayselauken, Bäslack)

Uwagi na temat budownictwa warownego zakonu niemieckiego w późnośredniowiecznych Prusach

Author(s): Krzysztof Kwiatkowski / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 2/2016

The article constitutes a collection of remarks concerning military aspects of the construction and functioning of the Teutonic castle in Bezławki (Bayselauken, Bäslack) in the last decades of the 14th century. Speculations included in the article refer to opinions expressed by the authors of the collective monograph about the late medieval settlement complex in Bäslack published in 2013. It presents the findings of archeological research in the castle and the village in the years 2008-2012. Remarks presented in the article concern three out of six problems which are considered the most essential. While it goes beyond doubt that the castle played an important defensive role, the hypothesis of it being a “fortified camp” for the army during military actions of the Teutonic Order against the Lithuanians and Ruthenians has been undermined. It is not possible to consider it to play a military role on a significant strategic level, as do the authors of the monograph of 2013. In the second part of the article the author undermines the hypothesis about the “systematic” character of the complex of fortifications situated on the eastern Prussian border. If the castle in Bäslack was indeed part of some defensive system, it could operate on the local level and consist of an insignificant number of elements including longitudinal fortifications constituting the so called “Landwehr”. The next issue addressed by the author was a problem of the typology of the term “wildhaus”. As in the 14th century the term connoted the location of the fortification on the border of the forest, the author shows a far-reaching morphological diversity of fortifications on the eastern outskirts of the Prussian state, which were or could be classified as “wildhauses”. Thus, a “wildhaus” cannot be classified as a morphological type of a fortification. The typology of fortifications based on the morphological criteria cannot be connected with the typology based on the administrative and terminological criteria. Archeological examination of the Bäslack fortification evinces its major cognitive potential and makes us aware of how little is known about the functioning of minor fortifications in late medieval Prussia. Further research in this field belongs to one of the most important elements of historical science in the Prussian regional dimension and related branches of science.

,„Și încă a pustiit şi sfânta mănăstire”. Mănăstirea Govora și un gest de putere de la mijlocul secolului al XV-lea

Author(s): Ramona Adina Neacsa (Lupu) / Language(s): Romanian / Issue: XXXIII/2015

This paper analyses the destruction of the Govora Monastery by the boyar Albu the Great in mid fifteenth-century Wallachia. The main contention of the article is that this sacrilegious act was embedded in the struggles between different Wallachian noble groups competing for power. Thus, by devastating the monastery, Albu the Great was trying to strengthen his own position, while undermining that of the founder of the monastery, no other than Vlad the Devil, the lord of Wallachia. The Govora monastery played an important role in supporting and legitimizing Vlad’s rule, therefore any act of violence directed against it was actually aimed to its founder. A locus of history and legitimacy, the monastery had a significant capital of symbolic power that could be manipulated, destroyed or, on the contrary, restored. This is precisely what happed with Govora in the second half of the fifteenth century, when Vlad the Devil’s descendents took care to restore the family monastic foundation. Thus, Vlad the Impaler punished Albu the Great and his entire kin and, afterwards, Vlad the Monk and Radu the Great re-established the monastic estate by buying back two of its former villages, Glodul and Hinţa. The purpose of this article is to suggest that the fifteenth-century Wallachian monasteries were not solely a network of religious and economic centres, but also hubs of political power.

15. Yüzyilda Hitay’da Bir Timurlu Sefir: Giyaseddin Nakkaş’in Hitay Gözlemleri

Author(s): Betül Mutlu / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 67/2011

Hıtay Sefaretnamesi is our oldest known travel book written by Hoca Gıyaseddin Nakkaş in Persian in 1422 and transleted into Ottoman Turkish in 1728 by Küçükçelebizade İsmail Asım. Mirza Baysungur of the Timurid Mirza’s was commissioned as an envoy Hoca Gıyaseddin Nakkaş , while performing the embassy official duty, has not only satisfied with the physical observations but also dealt with social and cultural structure of Hıtay society and transferred them to his prepared report in detail. İn this regard Hıtay Sefaretnamesi can not be ignored as a source is important in the 15th century research as well as being our first travel book. The present paper analyses the narration and observation notes of the Hıtay Sefaretnamesi.

30 май 1453 г. Византийският воин: опит за реконструкция на външния облик и снаряжението

Author(s): Stanimir Dimitrov / Language(s): Bulgarian / Issue: 1/2015

The paper try to give answer on the questions about arms and armour used from Byzantine warriors in the final years of life of independent Greek States and in the remaining year still the end of 15thc when Ottoman rule will put an end on the military tradition brought by different social layers. The author’s opinion is that tracing post Byzantine society we can reveal weapons and tactics used by Romaioi before capture of Constantinople by the turks. Pivotal pointsare Italian sources from 1470s that mention a new type of military formation. Mentioned by Marino Sanudo, Philip de Comin and Molines like “stradiotto, stradioti”, they will become very popular in European war theatre. Besides written sources are used representations in works of art. They represent warriors with no typical for Western Europe outfit.

A bölcs Iuvenalis és a neolatin bukolika

Author(s): Lajos Zoltán Simon / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 2/2016

This study analyses the bucolic poems of three humanist poets of the 15th century, Caspar Tribrachus, Baptista Mantuanus and Faustus Andrelinus, whose eclogues are characterized by both a realistic mode of depiction utterly differing from the idealized landscape of the pastoral and the influence of Roman satire. Although in the case of Mantuanus several allusions had already been noted by his contemporaneous commentator, Jodocus Badius, except for the obvious inspiration of Eclogue 5 by Juvenal, little attention has been devoted to the allusions to Persius and Juvenal by recent research. Th e analyses aims at a more thorough examination of this influence, dealing not only with the imagery and the vocabulary of the eclogues, but also with imitations of idyllic pictures from the satirists, as well as with the cases of double imitation, where the allusions to satire simultaneously parody classical passages of Vergil. Further, the important role of both Juvenal’s Umbricius and the medieval commentaries on Juvenal in the forming of Umber, the key figure in Mantuanus ’ eclogues, shall be pointed out. Finally, on the basis of the theoretical background of the two genres and their possible interrelations, it shall be argued that the satire played a decisive role in the establishment of this new variant of pastoral poetry, which is realistic in its imagery and didactic in its intention.

A Conflict for Values in the Origins and at the Beginning of the Thirteen Years’ War

Author(s): Stefan Kwiatkowski / Language(s): English / Issue: 4/2016

W przededniu wojny trzynastoletniej naprzeciwko siebie stanęły dwie koncepcje ładu krajowego: zakonna i stanowa. Ścierały się one ze sobą od dłuższego czasu, aż w końcu stały się nie do pogodzenia. Zakon, jeśli chodzi o zasadę, stał na gruncie priorytetu prawa bożego, z zasady niezmiennego, wiecznego. Jego poddani, skonfederowani w Związku Pruskim, powoływali się na to, co przysługuje poddanemu z racji otrzymanych przywilejów, prawa pozytywnego, pojmowanego jako gwarancja zachowania sprawiedliwości pomiędzy ludźmi.Podstawą sporu o wartości stało się pojęcie ius i pochodne od niego: iustitia i iustum, zaprowadzające ład w stosunkach między ludźmi, regulujące to, co przysługiwało człowiekowi w relacjach z innymi ludźmi. Jako duchowny pan kraju stał na stanowisku Zakon, że iustitia opiera się na autorytecie prawa kanonicznego i cesarskiego, następnie władzy krajowej wyposażonej w przyrodzone prerogatywy (znany jest cytat opinii brata zakonnego wobec poddanych: „my jesteśmy waszym prawem”). Krzyżacy i ich poplecznicy twierdzili, że związkowcy występują przeciw słusznym prawom Zakonu i Kościoła, że chociaż na mocy iustitia poddani są zobowiązani do posłuszeństwa i lojalności, to jako ludzie o określonym, wysokim statusie postępują buntowniczo, tym samym niegodnie.Związkowcy powoływali się na przywileje, należące do prawa krajowego. Na nich opierali poczucie swej godności (ehrbar Leute) i subiektywne rozumienie sprawiedliwości. Postawy tej nie można zrozumieć bez uwzględnienia jej kulturowego kontekstu. Według związkowców, na mocy ogólnego wyobrażenia o prawie i sprawiedliwości, przywódcy zakonni i prałaci mieli być związani powinnością zachowania sprawiedliwości człowieka względem drugiego człowieka, oddania tego, co mu się należy. Dlatego w argumentacji związkowej pojęcie sprawiedliwości odnosi się do praw ludzi, którzy są poddanymi władzy zakonnej, ale wyposażonymi w prawne gwarancje. Ius i iustitia miały być fundamentem z jednej strony ładu krajowego (zapewnienie dobra powszechnego, w szczególności pokoju i sprawiedliwych sądów), z drugiej zaś – gwarancją czci i honoru poddanych. To założenie w znacznej mierze określało faktyczne stosunki poddanych z władztwem zakonnym już w okresie wcześniejszym. Jednakże w połowie XV w. przedstawiciele Zakonu i Związku Pruskiego zradykalizowali swe pozycje. Krzyżacy dążyli do umocnienia swoich władczych prerogatyw w kraju. W argumentacji związkowców, zasługującej zresztą na uwzględnienie przez historyka jej antropologicznych aspektów, Zakon pogwałcił prawa mieszkańców Prus, a przez swoje zarzuty wobec nich zniesławił ich i zakwestionował publicznie, na szerokim forum ich poczucie godności, honoru i prawowierności.

A császári univerzalizmus Zsigmond diplomáciájának gyakorlatában (A franciaországi és angliai látogatás tanulságai)

Author(s): Sándor Csernus / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 3/2017

Sigismund of Luxembourg was the longest reigning monarch in the history of the independent Kingdom of Hungary. During fifty-year reign, significant changes occurred in the history of Western Christianity, and by extension, Hungary. The Western dynasties (Anjou, Luxemburg, Habsburg) were living a period of successful expansion in Central-Eastern Europe during the Anjou reign in Hungary and the Luxembourg reign in Bohemia. It's becoming more and more obvious that several aspects of Sigismund's rule in Hungary can also be considered parts of this process. The Luxembourgs were aiming to establish strong positions in Central Europe, and to acquire the title of Emperor. The study examines Sigismund's international policy, which encompassed an uncharacteristically large area, as well as the methods of such policy. The "crisis" of the medieval West brought several common problems to light, which were economic, societal, organizational, political, military and ideological in nature. One of the most obvious manifestations of the division of Christianitas and the waste of resources was the Hundred Years' War. The answer to the schism was reformatio in capite et in membris, in the case of the Hundred Years' War it was peace mediation, and the reaction to the outside threat was a new Crusade. Sigismund used the widespread notion of conciliarism to convoke the Council of Constance, and he was commissioned by the Council to launch a mediation mission during the Hundred Years' War as Imperator Pacificus. The aforementioned crisis brought about the renaissance of imperial universalism, as well as the general strengthening of the Emperor's position. Sigismund successfully solved some of these problems, even though his solutions were controversial. Sigismund strongly depended on the principle of imperial supremacy, that could be derived from imperial universalism. However, this obviously infringed the sovereignty of the big national monarchies. His endeavors sparked overt or covert opposition from his partners. This is clearly visible in the French and English stages of his mediation attempt, which included several symbolic events. These events were interpreted somewhat differently by English, French, Belgian, and German historiographies. The study examines this process by comparing sources, and confirms that the alliances in Canterbury and Calais (1416), formed instead of peace mediation, ensured the undisturbed operation of the Council of Constance, and created a temporary balance between the rivaling Western powers. However, this balance was tainted by internal tension, and it foreshadowed the final, desperate struggles of the Hundred Years' War. The decline of conciliarism and imperial universalism also decreased the effectiveness of Sigismund's actions. This study considers the process to be the culmination of Sigismund's diplomacy based on universalism, and at the same time the confirmation of the national component in the big Western monarchies ("the king is Emperor in his kingdom") in a new context, which means the consolidation of the concept of sovereignty.

A ferencesek asztala (A Kisebb Testvérek táplálkozási gyakorlata a késő középkori Közép-Európában)

Author(s): Marie-Madeleine de Cevins / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 3/2017

A görög irodalom újraéledése az első humanista fordításokban

Author(s): József Marton / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2010

The rebirth of the Greek culture is one of the unique characters of the renaissance humanism which makes it different from other renaissance movements. In that played the new Latin translations of the Greek classics crucial role which were pre-determined for the whole period by programming activity of Leonardo Bruni. This study analyses both the method (‘how?’) and motivation (‘why and what?’) of this revival. Firstly, the modern translation method of Bruni is interpreted which finds the essence of the text in its sense, presenting the historical-philological background of the method in the view of the contemporary intellectual schools and its complex linguistic aspects. Secondly, it discovers those literal motives, actual reasons and personal incitements according to that the Greek authors and works were chosen to be translated and purposefully ordered.

A horvátországi magyarlakta falvak története

Author(s): Krisztián Szigetvári / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2004

A New Archaeological Study of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul

Author(s): Ken Dark,Jan Kostenec / Language(s): English / Publication Year: 0

A SZEGEDI VÁR ÉS GÓTIKUS VÁRTEMPLOMÁNAK RÉGÉSZETI KUTATÁSA 1999 ÉS 2010 KÖZÖTT

Author(s): Ferenc Horváth,Ottó Fogas / Language(s): Hungarian / Issue: 1/2011

Die Studie überblickt die bisherigen Ergebnisse der Erforschung der Burg in Szeged mittels der Zusammenfassung sowohl der historischen Quellen als auch der früheren archäologischen Beobachtungen. Danach gibt sie die wichtigeren Ergebnisse der im vergangenen Jahrzehnt als geplante Grabung begonnenen Forschungen bekannt und fasst schließlich die bisherigen und aus den neuesten Erkenntnissen zu ziehenden Folgerungen zusammen. Die Freilegung der Burgkirche, die das Rückgrat des Forschungsprogramms bildete, hat grundsätzlich neue Ergebnisse erbracht. Denn es hat sich erwiesen, dass die gotische Kirche irgendwann zwischen dem Ende des 13. und der Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts erbaut wurde. Im 15. Jahrhundert wurde sie erheblich umgebaut. An ihrer Südseite wurde eine Seitenkapelle errichtet, deren gotisches Sterngewölbe in der Türkenzeit herabstürzte. Aus den an Ort und Stelle entdeckten Rippensteinen konnte das gotische Gewölbesystem rekonstruiert werden. Vor der Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts erfuhr die Kirche noch einen weiteren Umbau und am Anfang des 18. Jahrhunderts wurde sie abgerissen. Der Chor der Kirche reicht unter das im 18. Jahrhundert darauf errichtete Tor der Kasemattenreihe (Maria Theresia-Tor), in dem derzeit das Burgmuseum untergebracht ist, so dass die vollständige Freilegung auf weitere Schwierigkeiten stößt.

A Szilágyság és a Wesselényi család (14–17. század)

Author(s): / Language(s): Hungarian / Publication Year: 2012

This volume contains the edited texts of the papers presented at the conference "Sălaj (Szilágy) Region and the Wesselényi Family in the 14–17th centuries" held between 7 and 8 September 2012 in Cluj (Kolozsvár). The essays deal with the estate system and the political and economic history of the medieval Sălaj (Szilágy) region (Middle Solnoc/Szolnok and Crasna/Kraszna counties), as well as with the history of the Wesselényi family archives and the early modern history of the Wesselényi family.

About the interpretation and purpose of the charter issued by Bishop of Eger for burghers of Košice in 1290

Author(s): Drahoslav Magdoško / Language(s): English / Issue: 1/2014

According to the charter issued by Andrew, Bishop of Eger, the Košice burghers were exempted from jurisdiction of Archdeacon of Abaujvár in 1290. Circumstances connected to its origin and then comparison with other charters containing similar privilege seem to be essential factors leading to better understanding of the source. Hereby a very detailed analysis of the text might say more to explain its meaning. Therefore, the cognoscible context of exemptions with the examination of circumstances leading to the issuance of the charter in 1290, along with consideration of the words written in the text, encourage the opinion that the burghers of Košice had been exempted from jurisdiction of Abaujvár´s Archdeacon even before. The Bishop´s charter seems to be only a confirmation of the right allowed earlier, which was a common phenomenon in the towns (or in the communities of guests) of the Hungarian Kingdom.

ABOUT THE PLUCKED INSTRUMENT ON THE NYÁRI CUP

Author(s): Attila Fajcsák / Language(s): English / Issue: 2/2012

The study examines the short-necked lute-type instrument held by a musical angel in one of the Gothic niches in the node of a 15th century gilded silver chalice made in Transylvania. It gives a brief survey of the history of the Hungarian kobza in the Middle Ages and later. It is thought that the modern kobza still in use among Moldavian Hungarians up to the end of the 20th century was born in the course of the 18th century, but in reality the instrument and its old name of Turkish origin can be identified only from the 1870s. The author has reached the conclusion that this short-necked lute-type instrument with a staved body was probably developed from an earlier, more primitive instrument hewn from a single block of wood (neck + body) and with a weaker resonance. And he discovers this instrument in the hands of the musical angel on the Nyári chalice. Hungarian and international researchers have long been aware that the name kobza was once used to describe a wide variety of instruments, mainly in Asia. However, in future it must also be taken into account that there are a number of instruments that, although they have different names, are essentially the same as the kobza in structure and proportions, or do not differ substantially. Evidence of this can be found in mediaeval portrayals from Central Asia, Europe and the Middle East. All data collection and comparative investigations in these regions can give new impetus to future Hungarian and international research on this short-necked lute.

Ahmet Kankal: Türkmen'in Kaidesi Kastamonu (XV-XVIII. Yüzyıllar Arası Şehir Hayatı)

Author(s): Deniz Sefaattin / Language(s): Turkish / Issue: 11/2006

Review of: Ahmet Kankal "Türkmen'in Kaidesi Kastamonu (XV-XVIII. Yüzyıllar Arası Şehir Hayatı)", Ankara 2004, 387 pages, by: Şefaattin Deniz

Amtsbücher des Deutschen Ordens um 1450. Pflegeamt zu Seehesten und Vogtei zu Leipe (Beihefte zum Preußischen Urkundenbuch, Bd. 3), hrsg. v. Cordula A. Franzke, Jürgen Sarnowsky, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht unipress GmbH, Göttingen 2015, ss. 406

Author(s): Piotr Olinski / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 4/2016

Analiza dokumenta o prvom spomenu srednjovjekovnog grada Sokola kod Gračanice

Author(s): Salih Jalimam / Language(s): Bosnian / Issue: 13/2002

This is a brief interpretation and analysis of segments of a document, which indicates the first known mention of the medieval town of Sokol near Gracanica, which will most likely be put under research and for uttering comments in the future. It is the oldest known written document on the territory of the present municipality of Gracanica, which history and existence is closely related to this location.

Angielska Kompania Wschodnia w handlu bałtyckim

Author(s): Andrzej Groth / Language(s): Polish / Issue: 1/2015

In the 15th century the economic relations between England and the Baltic countries became more intensified. The Baltic market was an important receiver of English cloth, and – at the same time – supplied the English shipyards with all the basic raw materials and semi-finished products. It is worth reminding that in the mid-16th century raw materials for the shipbuilding industry accounted for 1/2 to 3/4 of the Baltic exports to England, and textile products accounted for 80% of the value of the English imports to the Baltic countries. Most of these raw materials were delivered by the economy of the Polish-Lithuanian state, which up to the middle of the 17th century kept the dominant position in the commercial exchange between the Baltic region and the West of Europe. The key role in the Baltic trade with England was played by three ports: Elbląg (Elbing), Gdańsk (Danzig) and Królewiec (Königsberg). The prominent role of Elbląg resulted from the fact that the Eastland Company had its headquarters there. After the truce in Altmark was signed (1629) the Eastland Company practically lost its headquarters as its stay in Elbląg became pointless because of the restrictions imposed by the Polish Sejm (Parliament) on the trade with the ports under the Swedish rule. After the liquidation of the Eastland Company’s office in Elbląg the port’s participation in the Baltic trade was taken over by Gdańsk, Królewiec and partly by the Livonian ports. Since the 1680s the Baltic trade concentrated in the Swedish ports. In England the ports that participated in the Baltic trade were mainly the ones from the Eastern coast: London, Hull and Newcastle.

Anonimowy traktat religijny z 1426 r. dla wielkiego mistrza krzyżackiego

Author(s): Piotr Kolodziejczak,Piotr Olinski / Language(s): Polish,German / Issue: 1/2017