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The article shows the author’s attempt to consider iconography subject of "Madonna’s Coronation" that was new for the west European religious art of the 12th cent. through the prism of feudal model of society and to carry out its interpretation from point of display of secular ideals.
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In the spring of 1967, at the village Köröstarján (Tărian), lying close to the western border of Romania, in the vicinity of the town Nagyvárad (Oradea) on the right bank of the river Sebes-Körös graves were found during the extraction of sand pits on the hill called Csordásdomb (Fig. 1). Rescue excavations were started in April of the same year by N. Chiodosan and D. Ignat, who opened altogether 41 graves. Apart from graves dated to Celtic, Sarmatian and uncertain periods, there were 12 Hungarian burials of 10–11th centuries (Fig. 2). The former 10–11th century cemetery must have contained much more graves as the excavations could not delimit the extent of the cemetery in any directions. The documentation concerning the excavations remained also in a deficient state. Thus it is very difficult to draw conclusions on the order of the burials. The graves were oriented, with minor divergences, to the west, with the exception of grave No. 29 oriented with the head facing south. Several of the graves were disturbed in the remote past. Horse harness was found in two graves (21, 29) and remains of a horse skull in one (this latter was a robbed grave, see Fig. 3/7). In grave No. 21 (Fig. 3/5) an arrowhead made of iron was found. This was the only grave with arms among the grave-goods. On the basis of the finds, all of the graves could be dated to the 10th century with one exception. Probably they started to use the cemetery before the middle of the 10th century and it was continued in this function till the end of the century. The only exception is one skull buried separately dated by a denar of Ist (Saint) László, King of Hungary in 1077–1096 (Fig. 3/2). According to the opinion of the author, this skull was dug into the already long forsaken cemetery by the end of the 11th century
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The actually standing Calvinist church of Boldva is of a royal founding. The building functioned as a Benedictine abbey around 1175–1180. The archaeological excavations conducted between 1976 and 1982 uncovered 68 graves within the church. A 14–16 years old girl lay in grave no. 21 in perfectly preserved renaissance clothes. She probably died in 1567 or 1568 and she was a member of the Putnoky family of the Rátót clan. This family owned Boldva until 1570, and then the Basó family owned it for about 160 years. The girl’s uncle Mihály Basó lay in grave no. 14 and her mother Klára Basó in grave no. 17.
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Written sources reveal that a political power shift and an excessive change of population took place in Pannonia in 568. Archaeological data suggest, however, coexsistence between communities different origins despite the community level realignment of society. The author would like to highlight some neglected examples that could provide details of vital importance for the topic and connect it to well known sites, all too often having complex and unclear interpretations. Continuity is analysed through the last phase of Langobard Period cemeteries, presuming that they were still in use during the last third of the 6th century, and through the early phase of Avar Period cemeteries, as their connection networks are the same: an intensive interaction with the western Merovingian and the Mediterranean world. This connection is evident in certain arte fact types (belts, weapons, brooches) and in attireas a whole as well.
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The fur trade, which runs from the Scandinavia to the Caspian Sea,began to focus from the 6th century. The historical process that causes this situation, began with encounters of some of the Slavic tribes , spreading from the field of Middle Ozi(Dnieper) northerly to the surroundings of Lake Ladoga and İlmen with Fin societies in the 6-8th century. In the 8th century Normans which penetrated to the Ladoga and İlmen Lake surroundings, spread in the direction of upper Idil (Volga) and Ozi River. So Normans arrived the Khazar country through the Idil River and also came down to the Black Sea through the Ozi and contacted the Slavs there. In the following process, Normans and later Russian merchants, sold valuable furs they receive from Fin and Slavic people, especially to Islamic countries under the patronage of Idil Bulgarian states.
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Am Fundort Vát-Telekes-dűlő wurden in zehn von den freigelegten Objekten Tierknochen gefunden, insgesamt 294 Fragmente. In den meisten Objekten lagen durchschnittlich nur vier bis fünf Fragmente. In diesen Fällen kann auf Grund der kleinen Zahl angenommen werden, dass die Knochen zufällig hineingelangten. Drei Objekte enthielten jedoch anders als die übrigen eine beachtliche Menge von Tierknochen. Die 19 Fragmente in Objekt 81 deuten bereits eine gewisse Kausalität an. Die 98 Fragmente in Grube 320 und die 141 im Grubenhaus 8 weisen absolute Zwecklichkeit auf.
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I took part in the archaeological excavations preceding the construction of road no. 405 between March 1 and June 26, 1994. The stretch between 0 km and 3 km where I was the director of the excavation started at the Dabas exit of highway M5 (marked by a triangle in Fig. 1), and lay within to the administrative borders of Újhartyán village. The archaeologists of Pest county had already carried out field walking in the track and in its environment. It indicated a single site on my territory: site no. 42.1 About two thirds of the territory was covered with planted pine and acacia forests, while the stretch between 2000 m and 3000 m was a wheat field on a soil composed partly of wind-blown sand and partly by a more compact humic soil. The area was segmented by N-S directed, 1–2 m high elevations. It could already be observed before the excavations that a few of the depressions between the elevations were former water courses or the remains of a waterlogged territory.
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Following the famous Bratislava battle of 907, the country was invaded by alien troops in 1030, and the patriotic wars of 11th century Hungarian military history started with the successes against Conrad II and continued with the defeats of the year 1040. The Hungarians battled the Germans again in 1051 and 1052. These military actions involved significant forces, as also demonstrated by the fact that the sufferings of the war were frequently mentioned in later years by the Germans as well. The German Kaiserchronik turns the German defeat into a victory, while the legend of Saint Stephen immortalizes its memory with the description of a divine intervention. The Hungarian chronicle offers descriptions of the events of 1051-52, embellished with several mythical elements.
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After settling in the Carpathian Basin in the early 10th century, pagan and nomadic Magyar tribes led a series of military campaigns against the organized states of Christian Europe. Based on the changing interpretations of these five decades, this study attempts to answer the question, how 19th century historians tried to interpret „inconvenient” events in a way that they could still insert into the master narrative of the glorious national past, utilizing the required methodology of historiography. Influenced by Göttingen scholar Ludwig Schlözer, authors of the late Enlightenment in Hungary depicted a rather negative picture about the Magyar raids. They condemned the Magyar campaigns as barbaric deeds, but at the same time used the ancient topos of noble savage to clear from the most negative charges of contemporary German authors. Romanticism brought about a significant change. In 1836 Mihály Horváth, the most influential romantic historian, wrote a comprehensive study Parallel between the Magyar nation moving to Europe and the civil and moral culture of Europe. In this bulky paper, Horváth argued that in the 10th century, Christian people of Europe had already lost their previous freedom but they developed no higher culture yet. Contrarily, Magyars were evidently free, though Christian Europe was somewhat ahead in terms of complexity of social structures and culture. The raids were outcome of the „young age” of the nation. This apologetic tone ruled the mid-19th century Magyar historiography. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the rapid development of Hungarian historical scholarship in methods, infrastructure, institutions and number of the staff. Critical historiographical standards became more common. The historians of this period became again critical towards pagan Magyars, whose society was now believed underdeveloped in terms of state-building. The Magyar campaigns were seen by critical historians as individual undertakings, which endangered the national unity. Two factors explain the change of the paradigm: first, the European intellectual environment, which Hungarian authors followed closely. Second, that the role of the state gained an increasing weight in Hungarian political discourse from the 1870s, replacing the former emphasis on people.
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In 1878, a golden brooch was inventorised to the Hungarian National Museum, coming to the capital from Békéscsaba (Fig. 1a–b). The object is decorated with human figures, interpreted as a dancing couple of a couple of lovers, man and woman. Probably, the object was intended to clasp the neck-aperture of a lady’s dress. In most of the publications, this object was erroneously mentioned as coming from Tömörd, Komárom county and only most recent research could correctly identify its Békéscsaba provenance.
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The Kalabaklı Valley is an approximately 12-km-long valley which extends towards the Hellespont in the south-east — north-west direction between 440-meter-high Bayraktepe in its north-east and 407-meter-high Beşiktepe in its south. Located in the south of the point at which the Kalabaklı Tributary reached the strait, Dardanos was an episcopal center in the Byzantine period. Probably, the settlement of the episcopacy of Dardanos also spread to Kepez in the north of the point at which the river reached the strait. Kepez has an important port, and numerous Byzantine glazed pottery items were detected during our surveys in this area. Vessels which were very analogous to the pottery in this area in terms of their paste, shape, and decoration characteristics were documented during the surveys we carried on in the Yağcılar Village in the upper section of the Kalabaklı Valley. Yağcılar, which we first detected during our surveys, has very rich surface materials, and the quality of the finds indicates that a production center probably existed.
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The presented data were collected on the occasion of the outer refurbishment of the church of Sâncrăieni. We did not have the opportunity to do archaeological research elsewhere, nevertheless we could form a comprehensive history of the main building periods. Sâncrăieni is situated int he eastern part of Transylvania, in the former Szekler seat Csík. The name refers to Saint Stephen I, the first king of Hungary as „Saint King" (Szentkirály), this village name and its church had therefore been created before 1192, the canonization of the second saint king of Hungary, László I. The Hungarian-speaking population of the Szeklers was settled in the region int he late 12th and early 13th centuries. Sâncrăieni and its church were probably founded by the new settlers, but they can as well be of an earlier origin. The walls of the nave preserve the remains of two medieval phases. The western gate and one fragment of a window can be identified as parts of a Romanic period Later the nave was elongated towards the east, on this part of the southern wall an early gothic window was discovered. None of the medieval periods of the chancel is known, as the present chancel was built to the nave in 1759. Like the most village churches of the region, the medieval church had no spire, nevertheless a bell from 1562 testifies to the existence of a wooden tower. Based on dendrochronological dating of the timbers, the present tower in the west was built in the early 18th century. The roof forms of the two medieval phases of the nave were reconstructed on the basis of the western gable remains.The presented data were collected on the occasion of the outer refurbishment of the church of Sâncrăieni. We did not have the opportunity to do archaeological research elsewhere, nevertheless we could form a comprehensive history of the main building periods. Sâncrăieni is situated in the Eastern part of Transylvania, in the former Szekler seat Csík. The name refers to Saint Stephen I, the first king of Hungary as „Saint King" (Szentkirály), this village name and its church had therefore been created before 1192, the canonization of the second saint king of Hungary, László I. The Hungarian-speaking population of the Szeklers was settled in the region in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Sâncrăieni and its church were probably founded by the new settlers, but they can as well be of an earlier origin. The walls of the nave preserve the remains of two medieval phases. The western gate and one fragment of a window can be identified as parts of a Romanic period Later the nave was elongated towards the east, on this part of the southern wall an early gothic window was discovered. None of the medieval periods of the chancel is known, as the present chancel was built to the nave in 1759. Like the most village churches of the region, the medieval church had no spire, nevertheless a bell from 1562 testifies to the existence of a wooden tower. Based on dendrochronological dating of the timbers, the present tower in the west was built in the early 18th century. The roof forms of the two medieval phases of the nave were reconstructed on the basis of the western gable remains.
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A bronze censer found in the Church of Brick Pillars in Old Dongola in 1968 provides unique insight into the role of such liturgical vessels in medieval Nubia. In this new study of the iconography and production technique of this vessel, coupled with an epigraphical analysis of the Greek and Old Nubian inscription around the edge, the author suggests that the vessel was crafted by Makurian craftsmen sometime in the first few hundred years after the conversion of the Nubian kingdoms to Christianity (in the 6th or 7th century AD). Seeking sources of inspiration for the Dongolan masters of the metal-working craft, the author looks to the Byzantine Empire, where close parallels for the decoration of the Nubian censer can be found in late antique silver objects. This leads to a discussion of trade relations between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Makuria, and the possible exchange of official gifts.
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The function of the roman ceramic censers has long since been a controversial one. Based on the information gained from the processing of the censers found in Zalalövő and on the ancient sources we can refute, that the censers were used as oil-lamps, libation vessels, fruit bowls or flower pots. There were turibula in each roman household (Liv. XXIX,14,13) and on the basis of the burned traces they were used for the regular offerings for the domestic gods. The name of the turibulum derives from the most often burned substance, the frankincense, which — beyond its ritual aspect — had several practical advantages. With the spread of Christianity, the censers started to disappear from the life of the Roman people because the early Christians considered substance-burning as a pagan act, and refused it.
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The Hegykő cemetery (and the Hegykő group) has strong ties with the 6th-century cemeteries of Lower-Austria both regarding its material culture and its funerary rites, and thus any interpretation must be set in this context. The comparative analysis of the cemetery’s two grave groups sheds light on the tendency that the community using the cemetery gradually acculturated to the population using the 6th-century cemeteries of Pannonia.
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The topic of my research is the archaeological examination of the religion and the beliefs of the Lombard population in the 6th century AD, in the western part of the Carpathian Basin, which was the former province of Pannonia. My main purpose was to identify and collect the amulet types. I have collected the finds from twenty-four cemeteries, including two hundred thirty-four women and children graves of Western Hungary and Northeast Austria. Although they were probably baptized in the 6th century, their amulets show the existence of pagan habits. These pagan amulets are usually worn as necklaces, or on their pendant-belts, but there are some types which are found in their bags hanging on their belt. Among the necklaces, there is a special amulet type, called bracteat. These bracteats are one-sided gold or silver coins with attached loops. On their upper side, the gods and figures of the Scandinavian mythology were depicted. To determine the function of the finds which are located on the pendant-belt was not easy, because they might have been worn for representational purposes, and they also might have had only practical function. In addition, they might have had personal content. In my research, I have collected those object types that admittedly had apotropaic character based on the opinion the archaeology of the Merovingian period and the written sources. I formed four groups of amulet types. The pearls which might have had apotropaic character due to their material belong to the first group. The second group contains the metal amulets. The zoolite type of amulets are collected in the third group and the last group consists of the finds from ancient times. I tried to determine which age-category used the mentioned object types the most.
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Régmúlt idők elbeszélése. A Kijevi Rusz első krónikája. Ford. Ferincz István. Szerk. Balogh László, Kovács Szilvia. Magyar Őstörténeti Könyvtár 30. Balassi Kiadó, Budapest, 2015. 400 oldal
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