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Comparison of brain connectivity between Internet gambling disorder and Internet gaming disorder: A preliminary study

Author(s): Sujin Bae,Doug Hyun Han,Jaebum Jung,Ki Chun Nam,Perry F. Renshaw / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2017

Given the similarities in clinical symptoms, Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is thought to be diagnostically similar to Internet-based gambling disorder (ibGD). However, cognitive enhancement and educational use of Internet gaming suggest that the two disorders derive from different neurobiological mechanisms. The goal of this study was to compare subjects with ibGD to those with IGD. Methods: Fifteen patients with IGD, 14 patients with ibGD, and 15 healthy control subjects were included in this study. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data for all participants were acquired using a 3.0 Tesla MRI scanner (Philips, Eindhoven, The Netherlands). Seed-based analyses, the three brain networks of default mode, cognitive control, and reward circuitry, were performed. Results: Both IGD and ibGD groups demonstrated decreased functional connectivity (FC) within the default-mode network (DMN) (family-wise error p < .001) compared with healthy control subjects. However, the IGD group demonstrated increased FC within the cognitive network compared with both the ibGD (p < .01) and healthy control groups (p < .01). In contrast, the ibGD group demonstrated increased FC within the reward circuitry compared with both IGD (p < .01) and healthy control subjects (p < .01). Discussion and conclusions: The IGD and ibGD groups shared the characteristic of decreased FC in the DMN. However, the IGD group demonstrated increased FC within the cognitive network compared with both ibGD and healthy comparison groups.

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Book Reviews

Author(s): Attila Szabó,Edina Szabó / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2015

The reviews of: -“Handbook on psychopathy and law” by Kent A. Kiehl and Walter P. Sinnott-Armstrong (Eds.); New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2013, 395 pp. ISBN: 978-0-1998-4138-7 -“The truth about exercise addiction–Understanding the dark side of thinspiration” by Katherine Schreiber and Heather A. Hausenblas; Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group Inc., Lanham, Maryland, 2015, 239 pp. ISBN: 978-1-4422-3329-4

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A critical review of “Internet addiction” criteria with suggestions for the future

Author(s): Antonius J. Van Rooij,Nicole Prause / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2014

In the last 5 years a deluge of articles on the topic of Internet addiction (IA) has proposed many candidate symptoms as evidence of this proposed disease. We critically reviewed the current approach to the measurement and identification of this new excessive behavior syndrome. Methods: Three popular models of IA were discussed: Griffith’s components model; Young’s Internet Addiction Test (IAT); and the criteria by Tao et al. (2010). We selected these models because they are widely cited and propose specific criteria for IA disorder. Our approach is not meant to provide an exhaustive review, but to discuss and critique the most salient trends in the field. Results: The models of Internet addiction share some criteria, including feeling a loss of control over Internet use; ensuing psychological, social, or professional conflict or problems; and preoccupation when not using the Internet. Other criteria inconsistently mentioned include: mood management, tolerance, withdrawal, and craving/anticipation. The models studied here share the assumption that the Internet can produce a qualitative shift to a diseased state in humans. Conclusions: We critically discussed the above criteria and concluded that the evidence base is currently not strong enough to provide support for an Internet addiction disorder. Future research areas are suggested: (1) Focusing on common impaired dimensions, (2) exploring neuroimaging as a model building tool, and (3) identifying shifts in the rewarding aspects of Internet use. Given the lack of consensus on the subject of Internet addiction, a focus on problem behaviors appears warranted.

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Is there a shared neurobiology between aggression and Internet addiction disorder?

Author(s): Changtae Hahn,Dai-Jin Kim / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2014

Evidences indicate that Internet addiction disorder (IAD) has a higher risk of developing aggression and violent behavior. A few correlation studies between IAD and aggression have implicated a common biological mechanism. However, neurobiological approaches to IAD and aggression have not yet been studied. Methods: A literature search for studies for Internet addiction disorder or aggression was performed in the PubMed database and we selected articles about neurobiology of IAD or aggression. Results: This review includes (a) common neural substrates such as the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system between aggression and IAD; (b) common neuromodulators such as dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, opiate and nicotine between aggression and IAD. Conclusions: Through reviewing the relevant literature, we suggested the possibility of common neurobiology between the two psychiatric phenomena and direction of research on aggression in IAD.

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The overlap between binge eating disorder and substance use disorders: Diagnosis and neurobiology

Author(s): Liana R. N. Schreiber,Jon E. Grant,Brian L. Odlaug / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2013

Binge eating disorder (BED) is a relatively common condition, especially in young adult females, and is characterized by chronic over-consumption of food resulting in embarrassment, distress, and potential health problems. It is formally included as a disorder in DSM-5 for the first time, an acknowledgement to its debilitating nature. This article explores the overlap between binge eating disorder and substance use disorders (SUD). Methods: The bibliographic search was a computerized screen of PubMed databases from January 1990 to the present. Binge eating disorder, substance use disorder, binging, obesity, food addiction, comorbidity, dopamine, opioid, serotonin, glutamate, and pharmacological treatment were the keywords used in searching. Results: BED shares similar phenomenology to SUD, including significant urges to engage in binging episodes, resulting in distress and impairment. Similar neurobiological pathways are found in both BED and SUD and medications based on similar neurobiology have been examined for both disorders. A subset of individuals with BED may have a “food addiction”, but there is no clinical agreement on the meaning of “food addiction”. Exploring the relationship between BED and obesity may also shed light on the extent to which BED can be viewed as an addiction. Conclusions: Overall, nascent research regarding BED and SUD suggests an overlap between these disorders, but there are discrepancies between these two disorders that need further exploration.

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Relapse in pathological gamblers: A pilot study on the predictive value of different impulsivity measures

Author(s): Bieke de Wilde,Anneke Goudriaan,Bernard Sabbe,Wouter Hulstijn,Geert Dom / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2013

Pathological gambling, a common psychiatric disorder, has many similarities with substance use disorders. Relapse, an important element in addictive disorders, however, has seldom been studied in pathological gambling. Hence, in analogy with previous research studies examining the role of self-report and neurocognitive measures on relapse in substance dependent patients, the present pilot study was executed. Methods: Twenty-two pathological gamblers and 31 healthy controls took part in this research. They filled in self-report questionnaires measuring impulsive personality (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaires) and performed neurocognitive tasks measuring impulsivity, decision-making and attentional bias (Iowa Gambling Task, Delay Discounting Task, Stroop Gambling Task). Twelve months later gambling activity was re-examined. Results: Analyses showed that PGs who relapsed (n = 13) did not differ on self-report and neurocognitive measures of impulsivity with PGs who did not relapse (n = 9). However, both groups did differ in age at onset. Finally, healthy controls and PGs differed in some (Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Stroop Gambling Task), but not all impulsivity measures (Delay Discounting Task, Iowa Gambling Task, Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaires). Conclusions: One-year relapse in pathological gamblers is not predicted by self-report and or neurocognitive measures of impulsivity and decision-making. The similarities in performances between pathological gamblers and healthy controls illustrate the relative health of the examined pathological gamblers. This last finding supports the idea that subtypes of pathological gamblers exist so that different treatment strategies might be necessary.

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Alpha activity in the insula accompanies the urge to neutralize in sub-clinical obsessive–compulsive participants

Author(s): Rhiannon Jones,Joydeep Bhattacharya / Language(s): English Issue: 3/2012

The behavioural addiction model of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) proposes that as compulsions successfully reduce obsession-provoked anxiety in the early stages of the disorder, their performance is rewarding and therefore potentially addictive. According to this theory, the urge to perform a compulsion or neutralization resembles craving in addiction, and ventral fronto-striatal reward circuitry is activated during compulsive or neutralizing behaviour, resembling substance addiction disorders. The current study used EEG source localisation to test this hypothesis by examining brain activity accompanying the urge to neutralize and covert neutralization. Methods: Two groups of non-clinical participants (15 Low-OC, 15 High-OC) performed a task in which the urge to neutralize was induced by supplying participants with an obsessive–compulsive-like thought. Source localised EEG activity was compared between a negative condition with high urge to neutralize, and a positive condition with low urge to neutralize, and correlations between brain activity and self-reported urge to neutralize were examined. Results: High-OC participants reported a significantly greater urge to neutralize than Low-OC participants, and the majority of participants reported performing covert neutralization during the experiment. Between-condition comparisons in the High-OC group revealed significantly greater alpha activity in the insula and vlPFC in the negative than the positive condition, which was significantly correlated with both urge to neutralize and later decrease in negative affect. Conclusions: The current results support the proposal that the urge to neutralize in OCD is neurally similar to craving in substance addiction, in agreement with the behavioural addiction model of OCD.

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Book Reviews

Author(s): Anikó Maráz,Áron Gyepesi / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2012

Review of: 1. Nancy M. Petry Pathological gambling: Etiology, comorbidity, and treatment American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 2006, x + 417 pp. ISBN 1-59147-173-7 by: Áron Gyepesi 2. Marvin Zuckerman Sensation seeking and risky behavior American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 2008, xix+309 pp. ISBN 1-59147-738-7 by: Áron Gyepesi 3. G. J. Madden and W. K. Bickel (Eds.) Impulsivity: The behavioral and neurological science of discounting American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, 2010, 453 pp. ISBN 9781433804779 by: Anikó Maráz

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Gray matter differences in the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortex of young adults with Internet gaming disorder: Surface-based morphometry

Author(s): Deokjong Lee,Jinsick Park,Kee Namkoong,In Young Kim,Young-Chul Jung / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2018

Altered risk/reward decision-making is suggested to predispose individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) to pursue short-term pleasure, despite long-term negative consequences. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) play important roles in risk/reward decision-making. This study investigated gray matter differences in the ACC and OFC of young adults with and without IGD using surface-based morphometry (SBM). Methods: We examined 45 young male adults with IGD and 35 age-matched male controls. We performed region of interest (ROI)-based analyses for cortical thickness and gray matter volume (GMV) in the ACC and OFC. We also conducted whole-brain vertex-wise analysis of cortical thickness to complement the ROI-based analysis. Results: IGD subjects had thinner cortices in the right rostral ACC, right lateral OFC, and left pars orbitalis than controls. We also found smaller GMV in the right caudal ACC and left pars orbitalis in IGD subjects. Thinner cortex of the right lateral OFC in IGD subjects correlated with higher cognitive impulsivity. Whole-brain analysis in IGD subjects revealed thinner cortex in the right supplementary motor area, left frontal eye field, superior parietal lobule, and posterior cingulate cortex. Conclusions: Individuals with IGD had a thinner cortex and a smaller GMV in the ACC and OFC, which are critical areas for evaluating reward values, error processing, and adjusting behavior. In addition, in behavioral control-related brain regions, including frontoparietal areas, they also had thinner cortices. These gray matter differences may contribute to IGD pathophysiology through altered risk/reward decision-making and diminished behavioral control.

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Both active and sham low-frequency rTMS single sessions over the right DLPFC decrease cue-induced cravings among pathological gamblers seeking treatment: A randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled crossover trial

Author(s): Anne Sauvaget,Samuel Bulteau,Alice Guilleux,Juliette Leboucher,Anne Pichot,Pierre Valrivière,Jean-Marie Vanelle,Véronique Sébille-Rivain,Marie Grall-Bronnec / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2018

Craving is a core symptom of addictive disorders, such as pathological gambling for example. Over the last decade, several studies have assessed the efficacy of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the addiction field, which triggers the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) to decrease craving. The STIMJEU study investigated whether a single session of low-frequency (LF, i.e., 1 Hz) rTMS applied to the right DLPFC reduced cueinduced gambling craving in a sample of treatment-seeking pathological gamblers. Methods: Thirty patients received both active and sham rTMS in random order and were blinded to the condition in a within-subject crossover design. Outcome measures included self-reported gambling craving (Visual Analog Scale and Gambling Craving Scale) and physiological measures (heart rate and blood pressure). Results: The rTMS sessions were associated with a significant decrease in the gambling urge, regardless of whether the session was active or sham. When controlling cue-induced craving levels, no effects were observed on craving for active rTMS. Overall, rTMS was well-tolerated, and the credibility of the sham procedure was assessed and appeared to be appropriate. Conclusions: We failed to demonstrate the specific efficacy of one session of LF rTMS to decrease cue-induced craving in pathological gamblers. A strong placebo-effect and rTMS parameters may partly explain these results. Yet, we are convinced that rTMS remains a promising therapeutic method. Further studies are required to examine its potential effect.

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Pro-dopamine regulator, KB220Z, attenuates hoarding and shopping behavior in a female, diagnosed with SUD and ADHD

Author(s): Thomas Mclaughlin,Kenneth Blum,Bruce Steinberg,Edward J. Modestino,Lyle Fried,David Baron,David Siwicki,Eric R. Braverman,Rajendra D. Badgaiyan / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2018

Addictive-like behaviors (e.g., hoarding and shopping) may be the result of the cumulative effects of dopaminergic and other neurotransmitter genetic variants as well as elevated stress levels. We, therefore, propose that dopamine homeostasis may be the preferred goal in combating such challenging and unwanted behaviors, when simple dopaminergic activation through potent agonists may not provide any resolution. Case presentation: C.J. is a 38-year-old, single, female, living with her mother. She has a history of substance use disorder as well as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, inattentive type. She had been stable on buprenorphine/naloxone combination and amphetamine, dextroamphetamine mixed salts for many years when unexpectedly she lost her job for oversleeping and not calling into work. KB200z (a pro-dopamine compound) was added to her regimen for complaints of low drive and motivation. After taking this nutraceutical for 4 weeks, she noticed a marked improvement in her mental status and many behaviors. She noted that her shopping and hoarding addictions had appreciably decreased. Furthermore, her lifelong history of terrifying lucid dreams was eliminated. Finally, she felt more in control; her locus of control shifted from external to more internal. Discussion: The hypothesis is that C.J.’s reported, behavioral, and psychological benefits resulted from the pro-dopamine-regulating effect of KB220Z across the brain reward system. Conclusions: This effect, we surmise, could be the result of a new dopamine balance, across C.J.’s brain reward system. Dopamine homeostasis is an effect of KB220Z seen in both animal and human placebo-controlled fMRI experiments.

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Zachowania celowe mierzone samoopisowo – pomiar i struktura

Author(s): Ewa Skimina,Jan Cieciuch,Włodzimierz Strus,Tomasz Rowiński,Artur Świtalski / Language(s): Polish Issue: 36/2017

The paper presents finding from analyses conducted in order to (a) prepare a pool of items measuring a wide range of purposive avocational behaviors and (b) empirically categorize these behaviors. The analyses were conducted on a pool of 209 statements describing behavioral acts and using a frequency response scale. The statements were taken from Oregon Avocational Interest Scales (ORAIS) by Goldberg (2010). The group of participants consisted of 801 people aged 16–72 (M = 29.71, SD = 12.69). A series of exploratory analyses was conducted on a reduced pool of items (by removing these poorly differentiating). As a result, 135 behavioral acts were grouped into 17 categories. Further analyses showed that these 17 categories can be grouped into 4 or 2 interpretable higher-order factors, which meaning is similar to personality metatraits.

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Wpływ treningu na poziom pobudliwości u psa domowego (Canis familiaris)

Author(s): Marta Dziedzic,Ewelina Włodarczyk,Judyta Gulatowska,Maciej Trojan / Language(s): Polish Issue: 36/2017

The presented work touches upon the issue of influence of training on excitability in domestic dogs. Excitability has been tested with the use of a Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) questionnaire (translated in Polish). The analysis covered influence of training (Obedience, Mantrailing, Agility and Frisbee) on excitability of dogs and tests related to possible existence of any relevant differences between dogs subject to various types of training and trained by more or less experienced guides with their experience determined not only by working with dogs in practice, but also by acquisition of reliable theoretical knowledge in the field of behaviour and training of dogs. Additionally, hypotheses relating to trends of the differences have been tested. The test has shown relevant differences between the tested groups, which confirmed the probable influence of training and knowledge of a guide upon the level of excitability in domestic dogs. The analyses have shown that there are relevant differences in the level of excitability between a group of dogs subjected to training and the one, which was not subject to training as well as between dogs guided by people, who acquire professional knowledge in the field of behaviour and training of dogs and dogs guided by people, who do not acquire the knowledge. The assumed existence of differences in excitability in a group of dogs was also confirmed, depending on, whether trainers acquire professional knowledge in the field of behaviour of dogs or not.

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Narcyzm a satysfakcja z życia: pośrednicząca rola neurotyczności i ekstrawersji

Author(s): Kinga Szymaniak,Oliwia Maciantowicz,Marcin Zajenkowski / Language(s): Polish Issue: 36/2017

Recent studies show that there might be two types of narcissism: grandiose and vulnerablenarcissism. The former correlates with more adaptive psychological profile and high well-being, whereas the latter is associated with maladaptive functioning including negative emotionality. In the current study we examined the relationships between two types of narcissism and satisfaction with life. Additionally, we controlled for Big Five personality traits, because they were shown to be relevant for both narcissism and well being. Total of 233 subjects took part in the study with a range of age 18–39. Vulnerable narcissism was measured with the Polish version of the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale and grandiose narcissism was assessed with Narcissistic Personality Inventory. Big Five was assessed with the Polish adaptation of International Personality Items Pool Big Five Factor Markers – 50. Satisfaction with life was measured with Satisfaction with Life Scale. We found that only one type of narcissism was significantly correlated with satisfaction with life. Specifically, vulnerable narcissism was negatively associated with life satisfaction, whereas grandiose type did not correlate significantly with it. The mediation analysis revealed that neuroticism and extraversion fully mediated the relationship between vulnerable narcissism and life satisfaction. The obtained results suggest that personality traits explain the level of happiness declared by vulnerable narcissists. This finding is consistent with recent data showing that vulnerable narcissism is highly correlated with personality traits, especially neuroticism.

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STILL ALICE VE BURKE YÜCELİĞİ

Author(s): Feryal Cubukcu / Language(s): Turkish Issue: 27/2016

It is hard to decide whether the words “süblime” and “the sublimity” used in the 18th century have still the same reverberations in the 21st century. There are three theoriticians on sublimity dating back to the past: Pseudo Longinos, Burke and Kant. In Pseudo-Longinos, the sublime has distinct moral implications. Burke’s theory is directed toward such situations where some elements or situations are felt painful or threatening. Kant’s sublime theory is based on a response of reason to an overwhelming excess of greatness or power. The romanticists including Schiller and Schopenhauer spread the sublime till the nineteenth century. Pathos, nobility, dignity and gravity are associated with sublimity. In this 21st century it is also possible to find some associations like urban, industrial, religious, supernatural, modern, postmodern, existential, poetic, gothic, feminine, masculine and so on. The purpose of this study is to delve into the Burkean sublime and find its traces in the novel Still Alice, by Lisa Genova, an American neuroscientist and author, who self-published her debut novel in 2007, which is concerned with Alice, a Harvard professor who suffers early onset Alzheimer's disease, which takes hold swiftly and changes her relationship with her family and the world.

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Empathic capacity of delinquent convicted minors

Author(s): Sonja Milojević,Aleksandar Dimitrijević / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2014

The psychological approach to juvenile delinquency introduced in recent years postulates “empathy impairment” as one of the origins of youth criminal behaviour. This means that in order to be cruel, people need to be unable to imagine the pain their victims experience. To test that hypothesis, we compare a group of convicted juvenile offenders (N=43) with a control group of adolescents (N=47) on self-report and ability measures of cognitive empathy (Interpersonal Reactivity Index and Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, respectively). Discriminant Analysis reveals a significant difference between the two groups, most notably in the dimensions of personal distress, RMET score, and perspective taking. However, after the control for age and education, only the differences in measures of cognitive empathy remain. Although delinquents perceive themselves as less capable of taking the vantage point of another person and, when tested, prove themselves to be inferior in perceiving emotions and facial expressions, there are no differences in self-report scores of the affective component of empathy. On the basis of these findings, we draw several practical implications concerning everyday work with delinquents.

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Neurocognitive mechanisms for processing inflectional and derivational complexity in English

Author(s): Mirjana Božić,William D. Marslen-Wilson / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2013

In the current paper we discuss the mechanisms that underlie the processing of inflectional and derivational complexity in English. We address this issue from a neurocognitive perspective and present evidence from a new fMRI study that the two types of morphological complexity engage the language processing network in different ways. The processing of inflectional complexity selectively activates a left-lateralised frontotemporal system, specialised for combinatorial grammatical computations, while derivational complexity primarily engages a distributed bilateral system, argued to support whole-word, stem based lexical access. We discuss the implications of our findings for theories of the processing and representation of morphologically complex words.

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Aesthetic Experience of Dance Performances

Author(s): Maja S. Vukadinović,Slobodan Marković / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2012

In this study the aesthetic experience of dance performances is investigated. The study includes construction of an instrument for measuring the aesthetic experience of dance performances and an investigation of the structure of both dancers’ and spectators’ aesthetic experience. The experiments are carried out during eight different performances of various dance forms, including classical ballet, contemporary dance, flamenco and folklore. Three factors of aesthetic experience of dance performances are identified: Dynamism, Exceptionality and Affective Evaluation. The results show that dancers’ aesthetic experience has a somewhat different factorial structure from that of the spectators’. Unlike spectators’ aesthetic experience, dancers’ aesthetic experience singles out the Excitement factor. The results are discussed within the context of dancers’ proprioception and spectators’ exteroception since these findings confirm the idea of a significant role of proprioception in dancers’ aesthetic experience.

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Morpho-semantic properties of Serbian nouns: Animacy and gender pairs

Author(s): Jelena Radanović,Petar Milin / Language(s): English Issue: 4/2011

In this study we investigated whether and how the cognitive system uses morphological markedness of animacy and gender pairs. In the Serbian language masculine nouns are marked for animacy (i.e., genitive-accusative syncretism), while for feminine nouns the animacy distinction is purely semantic. Thus, in Experiment 1 we used this natural, linguistic differentiation to test whether morphological markedness of animacy influences lexical processing. In the same experiment, we tested whether the cognitive system is sensitive to the fact that some animate nouns have a sibling in the other gender (e.g., dečak /”boy”/ – devojčica /”girl”/), while others do not have it (e.g., vojnik /”soldier”/ or žirafa /”giraffe”/). We labeled this indicator sibling presence. The analysis did not confirm the effect of animacy, neither between nor within genders. However, animate nouns with a sibling were processed faster than those without a sibling. Since the majority of sibling nouns are morphologically related (like konobar /”waiter”/ – konobarica /”waitress”/), while the rest are not (e.g., petao /”rooster”/ – kokoška /”hen”/), in Experiment 2 we tested whether morphological relatedness contributed to the effect of sibling presence. Results showed that this is not the case: morphologically related and unrelated masculine-feminine pairs of nouns (siblings) were processed equally fast. Furthermore, an interaction between the target’s frequency and the frequency of its sibling was observed: nouns with a more frequent sibling benefited more from their own frequency than those with a less frequent sibling. We argue that sibling support is realized through semantic, not morphological relations. Taken together, our findings suggest that morphological markedness is not used in lexical processing, which is in line with an amorphous approach to lexical processing.

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On advantage of seeing TEXT and hearing SPEECH

Author(s): Jelena Živanović,Dušica Filipović-Đurđević / Language(s): English Issue: 1/2011

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of congruence between the sensory modality through which a concept can be experienced and the modality through which the word denoting that concept is perceived during word recognition. Words denoting concepts that can be experienced visually (e.g. “color”) and words denoting concepts that can be experienced auditorily (e.g. “noise”) were presented both visually and auditorily. We observed shorter processing latencies when there was a match between the modality through which a concept could be experienced and the modality through which a word denoting that concept was presented. In visual lexical decision task, “color” was recognized faster than “noise”, whereas in auditory lexical decision task, “noise” was recognized faster than “color”. The obtained pattern of results cannot be accounted for by exclusive amodal theories, whereas it can be easily integrated in theories based on perceptual representations.

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