Философията Изток – Запад
This article deals with the stages in the attitude of Western scholars to Eastern philosophy
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This article deals with the stages in the attitude of Western scholars to Eastern philosophy
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This article discusses the problem of education according to E. Fink and E. Levinas. In Fink’s opinion, education should acquaint young people with basic phenomena of human being, and introduce them to the problems of the being as a whole, immortality, culture and history. The basic method that should be used in education is the game method. According to Levinas, education should acquaint young people with The Other, with its uniqueness and originality. Respect and preservation of otherness is the basic principle in his philosophy. Moral education can only be realized as religious education, and communication with The Other can be achieved though prayer. Religious education is what can introduce a person to the history and culture of the world.
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This article is focused on language’s nature and its role as a condition of understanding. In this context, the basic question remains whether language represents reality or, on the contrary, constitutes it. In order to answer this question, the study examines the border as a phenomenon. If we consider the border as nothing more than a limit, then the world within the boundaries of language appears to be something constructed only by language. If we presume that the border is a field of communication between reality and the subject, then the understanding should include elements of subjectivity, as well as reality itself. This could be the main statement of dialectical symbolism.
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Social Philosophy is a discipline that deals with social behaviour and interprets society and its institutions according to ethical values instead of empirical relations. Bearing this in mind, I decided to explore the phenomenon of the crisis regarding the modern ethos of postmodern culture in the context of the history of classical philosophy. I have done so by relating it to new theoretical and epistemological frameworks of social, philosophical ontology on the one hand, and to the attempt to find an appropriate linguistic paradigm though philosophical semantics on the other hand that would have the potential to create an alternative ethical category. The ultimate goal is to show that philosophy becomes philosophy through the human being himself.
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This article presents the main results of the rethinking of Hegel’s philosophy and Hegelianism, which Wilhelm Dilthey carried out in The History of Hegel’s Youth. This study is based on the author’s translation from the German of Wilhelm Dilthey’s work Die Jugendgeschichte Hegels. Hegel’s philosophy became one of the foundations of the picture of the natural world, the world of man, culture, and history, which even now functions as a paradigm of world philosophy and has a significant influence on modern intellectual culture and our image of the world. The article includes an analysis of the methodology developed by Wilhelm Dilthey for understanding Hegel’s philosophy, the central element of which is a personal approach. It reveals the intellectual background of Wilhelm Dilthey’s rethinking of Hegel’s philosophy and analyses the influence of Dilthey’s interpretation of Hegel’s philosophy on the transformation of the picture of the world of European culture, which is related to Hegel’s philosophy. The author proves that the cosmological model of Hegel’s philosophy is based on the personal experiences of the philosopher in his youth, which allows us to interpret Hegel’s philosophy as mystical, irrational, and pantheistic.
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Constantin Leonardescu (1844–1907) was a professor of philosophy for 34 years at the University of Iași. He was an adept of the French eclectic spiritualism, which he tried to reconcile with the positivism of Herbert Spencer and with the Darwinism of Ernst Haeckel, while countering Vasile Conta’s brand of scientific mateialism. Leonardescu argued against the positivist tenet of the incompatibility of metaphysics and positive science, based on the emergence of new “partial” or “local” metaphysics in the thought of contemporary genuine scientists, who philosophized disregarding the former metaphysical tradition, using only the concepts of their own disciplines and forging their own principles. Positive metaphysics exists thus potentially, the metaphysician’s task being to systematize, or to “reconcile” the local contributions of the scientists-philosophers in the framework of a general, unifying theory. This framework, he argues, is a generalization of “Darwinism”, that is, of the special metaphysics initiated by Darwin, then rendered general by Spencer and most importantly by Haeckel. However, philosophical Darwinism or “evolutionary monism” curiously vindicates, in Leonardescu’s view, traditional spiritualism. Generalized Darwinism thus interpreted offered a fundamental theory in which science could achieve systematic unity and become a true mirror of the Totality, which is metaphysics’ true object. Scientific metaphysics is principally a reflection upon science, taking as starting point the positive facts recognized as such by the sciences, and the empirical generalizations validated within each science, and aiming to ensure logical coherence amongst them, under the rule of the supreme evolution-principle.
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This paper provides an overview of selected philosophical implications connected with the topic of a virtual world as a simulacrum of anthropocentrism. The paper discusses also the impact of the implications on the considerations of the dilemma to what extent the users of a virtual world remain obedient to their moral values and how the virtual world influences being a human in the real world. The concept of a virtual world was initiated by a human because the human being`s intentions are to fulfill his own needs, to cross his individual barriers and, while attempting to his own development, to reach for what is for him instinctively attainable. Human aspirations of creating a virtual world, a look-alike world, emerge finalized but the only residuary conundrum is to assuage one`s desires for finding the good and for defending one`s moral values. A human being is in the centre of existence and is the issue of valence inasmuch as he is ‘the master’ of the world, and, according to the paradigm of anthropocentrism, he is able to achieve what he yearns for. Therefore, it is advisable to contemplate the issue whether a human being desired the virtual world to arise or whether he just wanted to desire the world in his omnipotence. Another alternative for the discussion is to ponder over a human craving for creating a new, better version of a real world and for his subconscious attempts at its annihilation.
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Adam Zagajewski’s essays on poets and poetry are interpreted here in the context of scholarly debates about the specificities of mystical experience. From the four criteria the great American philosopher and psychologist William James developed in 1902, “transiency” and “passivity” can be brought together as indicators of what I call the inescapability of mystical experience, while the two other criteria, namely “ineffability” and “noetic quality”, can be treated as what I call the “paradox of articulation”. The essay demonstrates how profound the reflections of the Polish poet on these questions are, how they are related to his views about the possibilities of contemplation and art in view of the history of violence of the 20th century and what they mean for the future of religion. The highly influential narrative of a world-historical process of ongoing “disenchantment” (Max Weber) loses much of its persuasiveness if these reflections are true.
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The present paper proposes a brief comparative analysis between two distinct metaphysical approaches about the person, with consequences in the area of morality. On the one hand, there is a Cartesian, Kantian perception, adopted and adapted by John Rawls, who essentially understands the individual as a rational and autonomous entity. On the other hand, in a Kierkegaardian understanding, people are, in a primary sense, natural beings, i.e.dependent, relational and guided by natural (not instrumental, determined) needs. This second perspective can be understood as an "alternative metaphysics of the person/self", which would suggest a different foundation formorality. In other words, our moral thinking would have its origins in certain natural needs, in love and affection (which also come with certain duties, attributes and responsibilities), rather than in rights and in autonomy.
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If education were an epistemologically open conceptual construct, then in places going beyond its conceptualism it would point beyond itself to the ineffable, and therefore over-conceptual. Thinking about education through its mediation in the light, power and essence of what appears to be, seems to be an opportunity to participate in different orders of existence. As a consequence, the concept of education, if it points beyond itself, reveals a horizontally dispersed and vertically united, diverse space of a possibly eternal universe. The view of this space, as originally over- and pre-conceptual, eludes all systemic thought yet stemming from it, because it always reveals itself as an over-completeness of what is conceptually conceived. Education therefore appears as ennobling and life-giving participation in various orders of existence. The aim of this article will be to develop the above vision of education in the light of Friedrich Nietzsche’s philosophy, however, supplementing this research with Plato’s philosophy when Nietzsche’s deliberations prove to be insufficient.
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In the first part of the paper are made analysis referring to the notion of pantheism. On the account of the relation between the notions „divinity” and „being/world” are differentiated the following stands: 1) divinity is partially within itself and is partially within the all; 2) divinity is entirely within the all; 3) everything is within divinity, not exhausting its scope and content; 4) everything is within divinity, exhausting its scope and content. In the second part of the paper are cited the views and conceptions illustrating and deepening the starting analysis. The views and conceptions are taken from philosophical texts, theological ones, and from belle-lettres: from among the non-European texts are discussed these of Lao-tsu, Zhuangzi, Bhagawadgita, from among the European texts are discussed the fragments of classical pantheistic texts of: Plotinus, Spinoza, Heraclitus, Hölderlin, Novalis, Feuerbach and other, including poets. At the end of paper are formulated thesis having both the character of summing up the investigation and having the aim of inspiring the further discussion. The first thesis: If one assume the stand (3) and (4), the specificity of pantheism loses. The second thesis: One should distinguish the right, clear, mature in terms of thinking pantheism, i.e. (1) and (2), whereas the stands (3) and (4) not acknowledge as pantheism.
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Book Review: Nikolay Milkov. 2023. Hermann Lotze’s Influence on Twentieth Century Philosophy. Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston, ISBN 978-3-11-072681-7; e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-072628-2; e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-072638-1; ISSN 2364-3161, 205 р.
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The aim of this paper is to present the key characteristics and specifics of Hegel's understanding of psychology. The basic topic and starting point of this entire research is Hegel's concept according to which psychology should not be "a science of the soul", as it has been constituted throughout its history, but "a science of the spirit". This starting point also means a complete reversal of the meaning and goals of psychology, which instead of the emotional side should deal with spiritual phenomena and the spiritual structure of consciousness. In that way, psychological processes and the methodology of their examination get a completely different basis and structure, which could've completely changed the course of the historical development of psychology as an independent discipline. The idea that psychology is a science based on wrong foundations (and that its authentic subject should be different) should be understood not so much as an irreparable mistake, but as a possibility that both philosophy and psychology still have not lost.
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Francis von Tessen-Węsierski was born on 22nd December in 1869. He came from the old noble Kashubian family who settled in the Eastern Pomerania (mainly in the area of Słupsk), in the Front Pomerania and in Ruggia. Francis’ father, Joseph, studied in Berlin where he later took up. In Berlin Francis completed his Matura (23rd March 1890) and after that he studied at the Theological Faculty of the University of Wrocław. He finished his Bachelor’s degree in 1894 and at the same year was ordained a priest. In the next year he earned a Habilitation and became a so called private docent (Privatdozent). Initially he taught the history of the Church and philosophy and also apologetics since 1897. In 1899 he was nominated an assistant professor of apologetics, next, in 1900 he was appointed a lecturer in pro-pedeutics of philosophy and apologetics; on 15 March the same year he obtained a Doctorate for the entirety of the academic work. In the same year he was offered to take the chair of the Dogmatics at the Theological Faculty of the Jagiellonian University. However, the prince-bishop, cardinal Jan Puzyna denied a canonical mission to Tessen- Węsierski on the basis of the insufficient knowledge of the Polish language by the candidate. Thus von Tessen-Węsierski stayed at the Theological Faculty of the University of Wrocław as an assistant professor, a lecturer of apologetics and propedeutics of philosophy. In 1933 when Adolf Hitler gained the power in Germany von Tessen-Węsierski was dismissed from the faculty for the lack of his “racial purity”. As a pensioner he lived in Szczecin. Nothing is known about his life during the war, nevertheless, it was noted that when the city was incorporated to Poland he was the first priest of Polish origin who stayed in Szczecin, and he died there on 7th January 1947. Theory of miracle is formulated by Tessen-Węsierski within the frame of apologetics, which is a theological discipline, however with regard to its goal-defense of religion- it significantly relies on philosophical argumentation in the process of explaining rationality of religion and related facts. Path to explanation of the phenomenon of miracle is- as Tessen- Węsierski claims- a carefully prepared definition. He starts his work from the cognitive and subjective analysis of miracle, what he calls a psychology of miracle. We may speak of miracle when something, some event or phenomenon, makes an impression on an observer. Source of that impression is comparison of that phenomenon to non-miracle facts. In the consequence it arises the need for explaining the cause of miracles. Following St. Thomas Aquinas Tessen- Węsierski links the phenomenon of miracle with astonishment (admiration). It- astonishment- takes place when we recognize the conditions (causes) and circumstances and we expect results which supposed to be derived from the given conditions and circumstances. But what happens is entirely different. It must have appeared the unknown cause (causa oculta), which influenced that usual natural process (result). Epistemological and psychological aspect of miracle leads us to metaphysics (ontology) of miracle, because finally it comes down to inquiry (inquisitio) on what caused the fact astonishing to us. In this point we need to turn to God’s Revelation, for only in its light we are able to explain that what transcends our nature. Theological competency is hence needed to cross from the negati-ve criterion: result could not have appeared if had been caused by the natural cause, to the statement that the result has its supernatural source. Tessen-Węsierski says that the proper perspective for that what is supernatural (Übernatürlichen/ supernaturale), is that what is natural. He reminds that Thomas Aquinas claims that in case of miraculous phenomena we deal with four factors: 1) intervention of God, 2) trespassing the natural order of things and 3) the result that differs from hitherto. Thus the main issue becomes the problem of God who is the principle of both: of that what is natural, as the Creator of beings, and of that what is supernatural when God exceeds with His power (Kraft) the order indicated by the act of creation. In solving this problem Tessen-Węsierski introduces a demarcation line between the nature and supernaturality. Thus, according to him, natural is that what derives from the God’s act of creation and that what is a certain order of existence and a mode of functioning of created beings. Supernatural is hence that what derives from God but exceeds the natural order of created things. Accordingly, the greatest supernatural thing takes place when human nature is adopted into the unity of the Divine Person in Jesus Christ, the unity called the hypostatic union. Further great “supernatural thing” (der supranaturalen Dinge) is vocation of man to cognize the Divine Essence and in general to community with God. What serves this purpose is grace and everything what accompanies (for example sacraments), and that is what constitutes further “supernatural thing”. Finally, supernatural fact is present in concrete, individual activity of God in some individual case. The latter one includes miracles- the subject of our interest- and private revelations.
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To get a basic understanding of ideology, the author sketches briefly its philosophical underpinning as conceived by its founder. Then he compares ideology to an alternative way of philosophizing by examining Aristotle’s philosophy which will include one of the most important philosophers in the Aristotelian tradition, St. Thomas Aquinas. In conclusion, he determines what pedagogical benefits flow from such a comparison.
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Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (1850. – 1937.) već je za života postao legendarnom osobom, ne samo u Čeha i Slovaka, već i na širim prostorima Srednje Europe. Logično se nameće pitanje u kojoj mjeri je ova populistička predodžba odgovarala društvenoj stvarnosti? Naime, o njegovoj osobi i djelu do danas se isprepliću proturječni sudovi, tako da tek kad otklonimo brojne predrasude i neistine koje su se o njemu desetljećima širile u vrijeme totalitarne komunističke diktature u Čehoslovačkoj, možemo približno ustanoviti relevantan odnos prema fenomenologiji ovog, po svemu izuzetnog lika češko-slovačke, ali neosporno i svjetske povijesti i to ne samo kao političara i državnika, već jednako tako, ako ne i više, kao filozofa i znanstvenika.
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Povjesničari filozofije, interprete i mislioci su iz opusa Martina Heideggera izdvojili mnoštvo fenomena sukladno njihovoj izrazitoj frekventnosti u odnosu na druge fenomene Heideggerova mišljenja, pa je tragom toga zbog svoje prividne nefrekventnosti jedan fenomen gotovo u potpunosti zanemaren - iako zapravo prožima cjelokupni Heideggerov opus i posebice drugi period mišljenja (1934–1946). Naime, ono po čemu je osoben Heideggerov drugi period mišljenja jeste njegovo interpretiranje djela ili dijelova djela mnoštva drugih mislilaca poput primjerice Hegela, Anaksimandra, Aristotela, ali posebice Hӧlderlina i Nietzschea – kojima Heidegger posvećuje mnoštvo predavanja, rasprava i govora. U tomu kontekstu, a tragom spomenute osobenosti drugoga perioda Heideggerova mišljenja, fenomen koji je umakao povjesničarima filozofije, interpretima i misliocima – iako obuhvata i sve druge fenomene, bili oni frekventni u Heideggerovu opusu ili ipak manje frekventni - jeste fenomen koji možemo odrediti sintagmom: hermeneutika učitavanja! Tako, hipoteza ovoga rada ogleda se u dokazivanju da su u Heideggerovu drugom periodu mišljenja prikaz teksta i interpretacija teksta toliko sjedinjeni da zapravo čine prikaz interpretacije ili interpretaciju prikaza na način da se više ne zna šta je prikaz teksta, a šta je interpretacija teksta. Upravo, na takav način učitavanje interpretacije u prikaz ili prikaza u interpretaciju ozbiljuje fenomen hermeneutike učitavanja što ima biti dokazivano školskom hermeneutikom heideggerijanske hermeneutike kroz mnoštvo pojedinih primjera u Heideggerovim govorima, predavanjima i raspravama o djelima Hӧlderlina i Nietzschea u drugom periodu mišljenja.
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This article presents the project of science of man introduced by Jędrzej Śniadecki in his theory of organic beings. Śniadecki (1768-1838) is known primarily as a remarkable chemist, physician and physiologist, as well as a teacher. One of the author’s most important works, reissued many times and translated into other languages, is The Theory of Organic Beings, published in 1804 (vol. 1) and 1811 (vol. 2). It was in that work where Śniadecki laid out the considerations regarding the creation of “the science of man.” As he wrote, what biologically distinguishes man from other animals at the same time connects him with them. Therefore, he postulated treating man as a creature belonging to the kingdom of animate nature, simultaneously assuming that man should be studied both in relation to other animate beings and to “beings similar to him” - other people in “social relations,” which are the cornerstone of the development of civilisation. The author focuses on presenting the relation outlined by Śniadecki between what is biological in man and what belongs to the sphere of civilisation.
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Der zweihundertste Jahrestag der Geburt des Sozialreformators, Philosophen und Logikers Bernard Bolzano (geb. 1781 in Prag, gest. 1848 in Prag) wurde unter dem Patronat der UNESCO gefeiert und war Anlass zu vielen Veranstaltungen, auch im Ausland, die zu einer tieferen Erkenntnis des Lebens und der Werks dieses genialen Wissenschaftlers führten. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde im Nationalmuseum in Prag eine einmalige Sammlung von Bolzanos Bildnissen restauriert, was ihre genauere fachliche Bewertung ermöglichte. Ein wertvolles Resultat dieser Forschungen ist die Bestimmung des Autors eines Bildes mit der Signatur „Pulzer 1839“ — eines bislang in der Literatur unbekannten Namens.
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In his lauding review of Dimitrije Matić’s (1821–1884) History of Philosophy (largely based on А. Schwegler), published in 1865 in the journal Vila, started and edited by Stojan Novaković (1842–1915), Alimpije Vasiljević (1831–1911) assessed the pattern of the book as one of the latest and best in the field. In his critical reaction to Vasiljević’s review, Milan Kujundžić (1842–1893) challenged his assessment. For the generation of the United Serbian Youth, Hegelianism was unacceptable for two reasons: because of increasingly influential positivism (naturalism) and scientism, and because of the strengthening of the ideology of Greater Germany with which it was equated. Both Vasiljević and Kujundžic were liberals. Their debate, however, was harsh and long, and the intellectual public followed it with “particular attention”. They polemicized about, inter alia, the actual philosophical relevance of the issue of idealism vs. materialism. Even though the debate showed inconsistencies and contradictions in argumentation, it led to independence in problem formulation and solving.
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