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It is argued that certain words for jail in Diné bizaad (Navajo)„ e.g. ’awáalya and wáalya, come from Spanish. Although it has been long suspected that this word is a loanword, all the suggestions so far presented in the literature remain unconvincing on phonological grounds.
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A discussion of the problem of “Altaic” influence on Proto-Slavic is the main focus of this paper. In its first part, chronological and terminological questions are presented; the second part is devoted to etymologies (*baranъ ‘ram’, *koza ‘goat’, *klobukъ ‘fur cap, hat’, *kъlbasa ‘sausage’, sablja ‘sabre’).
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The paper presents a functional approach to phraseology from former colloquial Polish speech based on the lexicalized unit jak Boga kocham and its selected variant forms. The author used the elements of the socio-pragmatic method (assuming parallel analysis of the material at the sociological and pragmatic levels) to research the use of these lexicalized constructions. The bases of the material were constructed dialogues from the Korpus dawnych polskich tekstów dramatycznych (1772–1939). During the analysis, it was observed in which way the phraseological unit might realize itself in various variants and contexts. Furthermore, attention was paid to the ‘from sender to the receiver’s perspective, applying the assumptions of Wojciech Chlebda’s phrasematic conception to historical linguistics. This approach gave an opportunity to observe in which variants and socio-pragmatic contexts idioms are most often invoked in the statements of representatives of both sexes. The obtained results were interpreted on the basis of selected non-linguistic factors, primarily historical and cultural ones.
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The article presents the criteria applied in the sociolinguistic annotation in the Corpus of old Polish dramatic texts (1772–1939) (KorTeDa). This level of annotation was about assigning the three basic sociolinguistic variables: age, sex and social status to all the utterances of drama characters (except for collective statements). Six values were selected for determining age (underage, young adult, middle- aged adult, older adult (senior), indeterminate adult, indeterminate); three for sex (female, male, indeterminate); and four for social status (low, medium, high, indeterminate). The article shows the interdependence between those factors and the historical, social and cultural context. Additionally, the authors illustrated substantial and technical problems they faced during the process of this type of annotation. KorTeDa may become an important tool for analysing the history of the Polish language taking into account the methods of corpus linguistics and sociopragmatics.
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The present contribution analyzes Latvian gaļa ‘meat, flesh’ from the point of view of the Indo-European anatomical terminology and identifies its cognates in Old Irish gaile ‘stomach’, ‘Para- Phrygian’ γάλλια ‘intestines’ with the same suffixal derivation in *-o-/-*-eH2-, and further with Ancient Macedonian γόλα ‘intestines’, Greek χολάδες ‘entrails, guts’, and Slavic *želǫ̋dъkъ / *želǫdь(cь) ‘stomach’, all derivable from the aniṭ-root *ghel- or its apophonic variants. Insular Celtic *eχs-glasso-/ā- ‘stomach’, if derivable from *eĝʰs-(ĝ)(h)(H)-stH2o- ‘standing out of *(ĝ)(h)(H)-’, implies that *(ĝ)(h)(H)- should belong to a different internal organ, probably ‘gall, bile’, whose designation derivable from the root *ĝhelH3- ‘green, yellow’ is attested in several Indo-European branches. The alternative, if γάλλια ‘intestines’ is of Greek origin, is also discussed.
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The article analyses the horizontal and vertical continuum of the territory flooded by Kaunas Lagoon and the coastal dialect zones. The study material was collected in Rumšiškės (LKA536) and Šlienava (Margininkai (LKA553 point)). The informants once lived at the bottom of the Kaunas Lagoon; the language of two families (inhabitants of different generations) was contrasted. The study area is the Western Aukštaitian subdialect of Kaunas area, where Priedzūkis dialectal features were expected to find. This assumption was confirmed: although theoretically, the manifestations of Priedzūkis are the clearest on the right bank of the lagoon and the vicinity of Nemunas toward the south, the findings show that the manifestations can be found on both sides of the lagoon, close to the lagoon. At the same time, it implies the distinctiveness of the area. The article also highlights the significance of the vertical continuum: a clear correlation between dialectal characteristics and the age of informants was established. With a new approach to the typology of age, breaking away from the usual three-generation division, the vertical fragmentation is revealed in deeper cross-sections. The older informants (who, according to the traditional three-generation division, would belong to the same generation as the younger ones) have retained more of the Priedzūkis features.
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The article traces the stages of influence of the Old Bulgarian language on the Russian language and on other Slavic and non-Slavic languages, from the Early Middle Ages to the Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Age: the first Bulgarian influence (10th – 11th centuries), the so-called ‘second South Slavic influence’, which is in fact again mainly Bulgarian (14th – 15th centuries), and the creation of the Church Slavonic language, which is a late Russian version of the Old Bulgarian literary language (16th – 17th centuries). Some methodological guidelines are proposed for the teaching and learning of the Church Slavonic language, which are a direct consequence of the Bulgarian origin and essence of this sacred liturgical language of the Orthodox Churches.
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In this article, I examine the issue of the tendencies to adapt the orthographic system of the Church Slavonic language in the Bulgarian literary practice that dates back to the 1830s. Special attention is paid to the changes in the acoustic features of given graphemes, as well as to the differentiated functions of the doublet letters regarding the specificities of the Bulgarian language. Consequently, I argue that the results of such an examination can contribute to reconstructing the spoken variety of the Bulgarian literary language from the period above.
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Adding a vowel that is not in the original of a word to that word for various reasons is called vowel derivation. There is no morphological reason for vowel derivation and it aims to facilitate the pronunciation. There are three types of vowel derivation: at the beginning of the word, within the word and at the end of the word. The derivation of vowels at the beginning of a word in Turkish is not seen much in standard Turkish and is more common in dialects. Vowel epenthesis is a common phonetic event in standard Turkish. This phonetic event is encountered both in borrowed words and in words of Turkish origin. One of the reasons for the vowel epenthesis in Turkish is to make the borrowed words that do not fit the syllable structure of Turkish fit the syllable this structure and thus to eliminate the difficulty of pronunciation in the borrowed words. As it is known, only some consonant pairs can be found together at the end of words of Turkish origin. For this reason, in words borrowed with consonant pairs that are not suitable for the syllabic structure of Turkish, we come across vowel derivations within the word. This vowel derivation, which first appeared in the spoken language, can also pass into the standard language over time. The vowel epenthesis can also be seen in some Turkish origin words in order to add strength to the meaning. In Turkish, vowel epithesis is not as common as vowel epenthesis. The vowel epithesis is mostly seen in dialects and there are very few examples in standard language. The vowel epithesis is a phonetic event that is more common in some Turkic languages than in Türkiye Turkish. The derivation of vowel at the end of the word, especially seen in borrowed words, provides ease of pronunciation in words of foreign origin that do not fit the sound system of the Turkish language. The vowel epithesis occurs in borrowed words containing consonant pairs that are not suitable for the syllable structure of Turkish, as well as in borrowed words with twin consonants at the end of the word. It is seen that examples of vowel epithesis in Turkish texts found in manuscripts of Lithuanian Tatars are more common than in Türkiye Turkish. In particular, the Miraj text and some poems belonging to the Old Anatolian Turkish period, which are among the manuscripts in the “kitab” type, provide us with a rich material on this subject. In these texts, examples of vowel epenthesis and epithesis in borrowed words from Arabic and Persian are used in pairs in an interesting way. In other words, we see that the same borrowed word is used both with vowel epenthesis and epithesis. In this study, events of vowel epenthesis and epithesis in Turkish texts found in manuscripts of Lithuanian Tatars are examined and the reasons for the higher incidence of vowel epithesis in these texts are discussed.
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The article is devoted to the peculiarities of the use of two phraseological expressions in the works and diaries of M.M. Prishvin (1905 – 1954), selected by the method of continuous sampling with the help of AntCont [4]. Their structural features and ways of transformation in the author's text are defined. In the course of the study it was revealed that these biblical expressions in a carefully selected contextual environment have a great transformative potential. The writer often uses modified versions of these phraseological expressions, which serve M. Prishvin as a powerful emotional and expressive means.
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The article is devoted to the analysis of vocabulary in Hieronymus Megiser’s grammar book “Institutionum linguae Turcicae libri quatuor” (1612). The fourth book of the grammar entitled “Dictionarium Latino-Turcicum et Turcico-Latinum” (“Latin-Turkicum et Turcico-Latin Dictionary”), which includes about 2500 words, is devoted to the material under consideration. The article gives a general characteristic of this lexicon, analyzes the construction and design of dictionary entries. As the material of the dictionary were the records of the Turkic language, widespread in Anatolia (Asia Minor) at the turn of the XVI—XVII centuries, the comparative analysis was carried out with reference to the lexicon of the modern Turkish language. As a result, the groups of vocabulary that have been preserved without significant changes were identified. This group includes names of toponyms belonging to the territory of modern Turkey, names of kinship, professions, names in the field of agriculture, names of plants and animals, important human activities. The biggest changes in the modern Turkish language in comparison with I. Megiser’s dictionary have been made to toponymic names of European countries, names of wild birds, medicinal plants, spices, which are not found on the territory of Turkey. Megiser’s dictionary has preserved for modern historical linguistics the Turkic names that were in use in the XVII century, and in modern Turkish they have become historicisms, replaced by modern European names.
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The article is devoted to the study of linguistic texts, namely reviews, published in two Ukrainian journals which played an active role in the fi eld of scientifi c journalism in the 1920s and 1930s. This study was conducted according to the principles of descriptive analysis. The structure of selected reviews is presented, as well as an outline of certain issues that were unresolved in the contemporaneous study of language, such as the question about the origin of the Ukrainian language or the issues of language norm or description of phonetic phenomena. In addition, the issue of two linguistic schools in Ukraine of that period was raised and their confrontation was outlined based on the analyzed texts.
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This article raises the possibility that several grammarians classified ʾilā as a noun (ism), at least in certain constructions. First, we discuss the view attributed by later grammarians to ʾAb Bakr Ibn al-ʾAnbārī, according to which ʾilā is a noun, as it may follow the preposition min. Secondly, we succinctly address Ibnal-Sarrāj‘s ascription to Sībawayhi of the classification of ʾilā under the nominal category of ẓurūf. Finally, and most importantly, we raise the possibility that ʾilā in the interjection (ism fiʿl) ʾilayka was categorized bySībawayhi as a noun. The discussion of ʾilayka in al-Kitāb as well as by later grammarians may shed some light on grammarians‘ conceptions of the noun-ness of the category of ism fiʿl.
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The present paper discusses the following question: What is the function of subject pronouns if the sentences have the same meaning with or without the pronoun? In this paper I propose that in modern Arabic dialects (henceforth MAD), subject pronouns do have a communicative function and their use or deletion is not a free choice made by the speaker. This paper shows that subject pronouns serve to preclude ambiguity. I found that in the perfect Classical Arabic (henceforth CA) and Qəltu dialects do not use a pronoun to avoid ambiguity for 1p.sg and 2p.m.sg because in these dialects there are two different forms for the two persons, i.e. there is no ambiguity and as a result there is no need for a pronoun. Unlike CA and Qəltu dialects, Galilean Arabic (henceforth GA) uses the pronoun to avoid ambiguity because in this dialect there is one form for 1p.sg and 2p.m.sg, i.e. ambiguity arises and there is a need for pronoun. In the imperfect CA, GA and Qəltu dialects have ambiguous forms for 2p.m.sg and 3p.f.sg. As a result, there is a need for a pronoun in order to avoid the ambiguity and resolve the problem. All of them have used the pronoun for this purpose: GA, Qəltu dialects and CA. In addition, I found that the pronoun is sometimes superfluous or has an emphasizing function in these dialects, but it is mandatory when there is an ambiguity to be resolved. These results confirm my hypothesis regarding the use and the function of the subject pronoun in MAD.
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The aim of the paper is to indicate the research potential and perspective of discourse as a historical and dynamic phenomenon. Methodology used in the paper concentrates on discourse linguistics, stylistics, and text linguistics, which is related to the concept of language as a mode of communication manifested at its higher levels. What is important, the author is convinced that historical dimensions can be embedded into the definition of discourse. The first aspect constitutes the extension of the reflection at the discourse level in historical language studies. However, the inverse relation is most interesting. It is worth noting that the language history research could enrich the concept of discourse. Referring to previous research on the history of Polish scientific discourse and discourse of the excluded, the author formulates a thesis on the influence of the historical research on the concept of discourse, which could manifest itself in the following ways: (1) remodelling of the definition of discourse; (2) discourse dynamics; and (3) external discourse changes (cultural, sociological). The main conclusions are as follows: (1) The complementarity of language history and discourse linguistics should be considered. (2) Discourse definition is an open category and, among others, depends on historical changes. (3) The dynamic nature of discourse could be the basis for adopting historical discourse studies as a subdiscipline of linguistics. (4) Historical aspects of discourse can encourage research on communication as a dynamic, multifaceted, and complex component of culture.
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The purpose of the study is to analyse the semantic category of PURITY and its corpus-based textual representations, as well as the question of the interpretive framework ruling its discursive meaning in Old Polish culinary discourse. The basis of the study is a corpus of texts including the oldest Polish texts on culinary topics, i.e. cookbooks, the oldest herbalists and dietary-health texts. The interpretation demonstrates that the concept of purity was determined in the old discourse by the conceptual framework of DIET, HEALTH and FASTING.
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The tradition of writing works on literary arts and some poetic terms in Persian literature has begun with Raduyani’s Tercüman al-Balaga and reached an important stage with Rashid al-Din Vatvat’s Hadaik al-Sihr fi Dakaik al-Sihr. Vahid al-Tabriz’'s Miftah al-Badayi is one of the works on literary arts and some poetic terms written under the influence of Vatvat’s work. This work was translated into Turkish by Ali Nazif, with the title Tercüme-i Miftah al-Badayi in 1300/1882-83. Six years after writing his translation, Ali Nazif wrote Zinet alKalam based on this work. In Zinet al-Kalam, the author made some additions to his previous translation and omitted some parts of the translation. When both works are analysed in detail, it is understood that Zinet al-Kalam is not an independent work, but rather a work produced from the translation of an earlier work. In the Ottoman copyright tradition, it is a common practice to add to, subtract from or summarise the source text when translating a work from another language into Turkish. Since it is not sufficient to consider these works as translations, the term original-translation has been proposed by researchers to express these works. Ali Nazif’s Zinet al-Kalam is also a work close to original-translation. However, this work is a original work based on the author’s previous translation of Miftah al-Badayi. In the first part of this study, the time period in which Vahid al-Tabrizi lived, whose century of life and date of death are suggested to be different from each other in the sources, was tried to be determined based on various clues and information about his works was given. In the second part, that the method applied in the translation of Miftah al-Badayi is analysed, and Zinet al-Kalam as an original work produced from this translation is emphasised.
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Review of: Die Verben des Altalbanischen: Belegworterbuch, Vorgeschichte und Etymologie (Foljet e shqipes së vjetër: fjalori i konkordancave, parahistori dhe etimologji)/ Stefan Schumacher dhe Joachim Matzinger. Me bashkëpunim të Anna-Maria Adaktylos. - Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013. (Albanische Forschungen; 33)
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Vëllimi i gjashtë ndahet në tri pjesë: 1. Histori e gjuhës shqipe; 2. Fonetikë historike e gjuhës shqipe dhe 3. Gramatikë historike e gjuhës shqipe. Historisë së gjuhës shqipe i kushtohen gjashtë shkrime, prej të cilëve katër janë të një rëndësie të veçantë, sepse trajtojnë probleme kyçe të kësaj fushe, për të cilat është shkruar e diskutuar shumë, por ku ende nuk janë arritur mendime të njësuara.
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Jeta dhe veprimtaria e Pjetër Bogdanit është dokumentuar në një numër të madh dokumentesh e materialesh arkivore, në pjesën më të madhe të botuara. Botuesit kryesorë të dokumenteve ku përfshihet historia e Shqipërisë e shekujve XVII-XVIII dhe mes tyre edhe dokumentet që lidhen me Pjetër Bogdanin janë D. Coleti - F. Riceputi, Augustin Theiner, Jovan Radonic, Injac Zamputi, Marco Jacov etj., ndërsa në mënyrë të posaçme për mbledhjen e dokumentacionit lidhur me Pjetër Bogdanin kanë punuar Luigj Marlekaj dhe Odette Marquet. Nga këto dokumente është rindërtuar në momentet më të rëndësishme të saj rrjedha jetësore e Bogdanit dhe veprimtaria e tij klerikale, intelektuale e politike, me përjashtim të periudhës së hershme të vendlindjes dhe datëlindjes si dhe të shkollimit fillor, të cilat ende sot nuk janë saktësuar përfundimisht.
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