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Based on the memory of participants and literature produced on the same topic, the author has attempted to present the contours of an erected stage in the small American town of Dayton, Ohio, in order to end the war against Bosnia and Herzegovina. Through the presentation of a few events, the author has attempted to illuminate the path trodden by the international brokers and their teams, the way that they managed to make the framework for the negotiations, as well as the context of the negotiations themselves which were successfully finished in the “last attack”. The author presents dilemmas and concepts of the sides engaged in the conflict and the mediators. The text show the willingness of the “great ones” to satisfy their own interests, without wanting to achieve the implementation of a po litical system in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the relations that would lead it towards healing and prosperity.
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Based on unpublished Ottoman tax registers (tapu tahrir defteri) kept at the Ottoman archives in Istanbul, the article examines the process of transformation of the Byzantine town of Adrianople into the Ottoman Edirne; the change in the architectural and ethnoconfessional layout of the city; the location of a part of the Muslim and Christian population and of the urban quarters inhabited by them; the Jewish communities and the dynamics in the quantitative indicators of the registered households; the condition, designation and functions of the ancient and medieval fortress of Adrianople and the way in which it fit into the new Ottoman urban setting.
More...(Международният отзвук и „българският реванш“ за Балканските войни)
The First World War has its pre-history, in which the local conflicts point out the main interests and goals, for which a peaceful solution hadn’t been found until that moment. The Balkan wars (1912–1913) are not only a typical example for that, but also a sign for the upcoming Europe-wide bloodshed. The following article covers the period between the end of the Balkan wars and the beginning of World War I and has as a goal to present some of the problems that reflect the public sentiments in Bulgaria. The article presents the oppositional public positions, seen through the eyes of the editors of the daily newspaper of the People’s Party – “Mir”, the daily newspaper of the Democratic party – “Pryaporets” and the weekly magazine “Svobodno mnenie”. The information, which the three publications offer, presents the events commented from the point of view of the political and most of all the nationalistic ideals of its editors. The analysis of the facts is usually too emotional and this is understandable considering the moment of national grief.Two are the main problems, which most of all capture the attention of the authors and the editors. Firstly, the desire to research and analyze the well-meaning attitude of the foreigners towards Bulgaria, which was especially important considering the anti-Bulgarian attitude in regard to the Second Balkan War and secondly, the need for a peaceful solution of the problems this war has caused. The newspapers describe the sentiments in the Bulgarian political and social circles and the fluctuations between outright neutrality and military intervention, without giving a definite answer on which side to be.
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In the first years of his rule, Ceausescu managed to build a social solidarity around the party through political rehabilitations, public condemnation of the invasion of Czechoslovakia and direct involvement of the party in solving the problems of the common people (welfare, houses, and stable jobs). Encouraged to write by press campaigns as well as official declarations, the ordinary citizen of the seventies and eighties felt safe under the protection of the state/leader/party. Some of them use the elogious terms spread by the propaganda apparatus and voluntarily associate themselves with support for the activities of the party and the general secretary. People identify unconditionally with the leader’s actions, supported and approved of them, and are full of gratitude for living in, or preparing to live in, a golden age. The psychology of adherence can be explained by the social changes and the effects of modernisation (urbanisation, industrialisation, electrification) which Romanian society benefited from. The deliberate hiding of daily realties and of generalised shortages are part of respecting the existing social contract between society and regime. These letters are the result of personal initiatives, they express voluntary servitude and illustrate the accommodation of the ordinary citizen with the rules imposed by the party.
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The article examines and revises some opinions presented in historiography in the past two decades on issues of the history of Bulgarian national revolutionary movement in 1875 related to the serious conflict that arose between its most prominent representatives at that time – Lyuben Karavelov and Hristo Botyov. The author mainly opposes to the contentions of some of the most respected contemporary scholars of National Revival period – prof. Kr. Sharova and prof. Pl. Mitev – that: in 1875 Hr. Botyov departed from the correct revolutionary positions of BRCK and its chairman L. Karavelov; Hr. Botyov questioned the usefulness of spreading knowledge among his countrymen; led a policy of separatism in the revolutionary organization; supported smear campaign against the chairman of BRCK and sought to remove him and take his leading position, etc.
More...Интервю на д-р Анатолий Кънев с проф. дин Иван Стоянов, председател на фондация "Васил Левски"
Interview abut the history and its place in our lives, how we should think of it, about its objectivity and how people can't "bend" history so it match their ideas and points of view.
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In the first five years after World War II, a process of a state-legal transition or unification with Slovenia and Croatia in the context of Yugoslavia took place in Istria. During this very sensitive period of the division of its territory, uncertainty, socio-political transformation and establishment of the new authorities, numerous illegalities, repression and crimes were committed against everyone who tried to hinder or prevent these processes. The repression was aimed against the former wartime enemies, war criminals, collaborators, fascists, ideological, political and national enemies, and often also against the former allies and fellow fighters – in short, against anyone preventing or hindering the political agenda of the Communist Party. The Department for the Protection of People (OZNA) and, since March 1946, State Security Administration (UDV) represented the pillar of the repression policy of the new authorities and a characteristic example of secret political police, which was formed during the establishment and in the first years of the new state and entrusted with the task of “defending” the state from external and internal enemies. The second pillar of repression consisted of administrative departments of people’s committees, while the third one was made up of municipal, district and administrative unit courts.
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The article presents a synthetic summary of the state of research on the Łódź ghetto. The author focuses on research by Polish and German scholars. The paper presents edited source texts, such as newspapers or reportages, one of the most important documents of the Holocaust literature, namely the “Chronicle of the Łódź Ghetto / Litzmannstadt Getto”, as well as studies on various phenomena in the ghetto, such as culture and literature, daily life, or deportation of Jews from various German cities to the Łódź ghetto. The article also mentions the current works on subsequent editions.
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The Communist rule in Bulgaria from 1944 to 1990 represents one of the harsh totalitarian regime in the Eastern Europe. By the end of October 1944 were killed approximately 30 000 people without any court sentences. Every potential form of resistance has been crashed ruthless by all possible and cruelest means. The vigilance was extremely rigid in the “holy of the holies” of the totalitarian ideology – a Marxist-Leninist philosophy.Slavi Boyanov (1915 – 2011) was not only the first dissident philosopher in communist Bulgaria, but also one of rare oppositionist who abides by his democratic and humanistic views to the very end. The foundations of his anti-totalitarian Weltanschauung were the ideas of the Italian Rinascimento and especially the philosophy of Nicolaus Cuzanus and Giordano Bruno. A French trained and a fervent adherent of Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev he nevertheless substantiates his defense on Italian civilization, culture and notorious humanism. Namely his impeccable anti-nazi activity (he was also one of the saviors of Bulgarian Jews) and his devotement to Giordano Bruno (Il Nolano) that literally saved his life and above all his soul. So it is not haphazardly that from his first publication abroad (1973) to his last commemoration as the oldest alive anti-Stalinist dissident in 2003 it was Italy in the role of the good fortune.The author of the study has only just lately a chance to work in the recently open archives of the Bulgarian Communist State Security and in Slavi Boyanov’s personal records in Paris.
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In the last decades, the memory of the war became a recurring topic in oral history research. This article proposes a discussion on the relationship between war and oral history on two levels, the first being the development of the relationship between the two, which has its origins in ancient times and will be institutionalized during the Second World War due to Colonel Marshall's research on the field. After this moment, the use of oral testimony became standard procedure in the U.S. military, several thematic researches being developed(German Military History Program, Senior Officers Program) by special teams of military historians which were created with the task of gathering the testimonies in the shortest time from the researched event. These team shave been posted with the U.S. Army in all theaters of military operations in which the army was involved: Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan. The second approach discusses the specifics of remembering intense moments and how they can influence the quality and value of oral testimony gathered decades away from the event.In the last part of the article, we mention the research works regarding war memory, as those are reflected in the research topics and articles published by the Oral History Institute researchers in the last 13 issues of the Yearbook of Oral History. The diversity of the conflicts analyzed by specific methodology (World War Two, Afghanistan, Transnistria) assures an important role for the Institute of Oral History in the innovation of historiographical discourse about war in our country.
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The author discusses how the concept of “national identity” has been defined and expressed throughout different ages, peoples and schools of thought. The relation between religious, class-based, or national identity and political ideologies is being carefully observed, starting from the medieval period into the modern age, not only in Europe, but also in the East. What happens with national identity? Is it, based on old social science schools, inherited or acquired? Here appears one of the initial distinctions between two opposing concepts of the national identity: the German understanding, originating from J. Fichte and the German romantics, according to which a nation is linked by a common origin, the common identity of the people, history and language (Volksgeist) versus the Franco-American school, which originated in the French revolution, stating that a nation is built not on common history, but is rather a societal outcome, being based on politics, adherence to the values of the Republic and loyalty to the state. In the contemporary period the French concept has been predominant and was taken over by the American school of thought. One of its main ideas is that peoples, more precisely the populations, who suffered from an initial lack of traditions of state governance and from a deficit of native intellectuals, as a result of their political situation, did not succeed to consolidate into genuine nations. Furthermore, the development of national identity in the current Republic of Moldova is being thoroughly analysed. Finally, the phenomenon of self-identification of the Bessarabians is rigorously analysed, based on a scholarly and historically centred approach.
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The paper focuses on the current history of Chisinau as a city in the making, cementation and promoting its credibility and image in the national and international arena. It analyses the soviet time city when Chisinau was intensively urbanized, industrialized, denationalized and russificated at all levels, particularly administration, education, church and public space. The article looks at Chisinau from the prospect of its transformation from a Soviet capital to a European city, a process that has been lasting for more than twenty years since Moldova gained its independence and appearing not yet completed. It examines the impact of the Soviet past on the urban landscape and dwellers’ mentality and analyses the city’ transition toward Europeanization through the prism of facts and events that occurred in Chisinau over the last years. This study aims at answering several basic questions. Among them: What principles tsarist and Soviet authorities have been guided in projecting the city of Chisinau? What was the propaganda role in building the image of the Soviet Chisinau? How the city-capital of Chisinau has been shaped through planning, building controls, russification and heritage? What has Chisinau inherited from its Soviet past and how the transition/transformation process to Europeanization takes place in Chisinau? And how the capital city inhabitants express their sense of belonging to Chisinau?
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The aim of the article is to present various techniques of plant conservation and preparation, especially in the period until the end of the 18th century. It shows the museum aspect of botanical collections. However, the most important issue is the transformation of natural artifacts into cultural exhibits. On the example of old Polish collections, especially those gathered by Anna Wazówna, Anna Jabłonowska, the Breyn family, Teodor Klein, Jerzy Andrzej Helwing, but also based on European achievements and traditions – especially Italian (Luca Ghini, Gherardo Cibo, Ulisses Aldrovandi) and German, the article presents techniques that have been developed to prepare selected plants or botanical elements to become part of the collection.The article briefly presents all stages of the process – from collecting using appropriate equipment and under appropriate weather conditions, through appropriately selected conservation methods, description, and ending with the exhibition of objects. The history of techniques for preserving botanical exhibits was discussed in relation to selected sources – from drying (and its various varieties related to, e.g. the need to preserve color or appropriate spatial shape, or the decorative skeletal technique), through storage in spirit solutions, soaking in glycerin, to freeze-drying or covering plants with epoxy resin – modern preparation techniques that pursue similar goals to those known already in the 15th or 17th century. Therefore, the article also includes references to the latest research on the conservation of plants and biological exhibits.The text is based on Old Polish sources – especially the works of Jan Krzysztof Kluk, whose writings contain quite detailed information on the presentation of preparation techniques and plant exhibits in the nature study. The basic source is also a French publication in the field of botany, written by the practitioner and creator of plant collection objects – Jean Pitton de Tournefourt. Examples include material sources preserved to this day – for example the oldest herbariums of the hortus siccus type, culturally connected with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.Another issue related to the preparation of collection objects is the awareness of their subsequent use and exhibition. Various presentation techniques were also shown here – from living botanical gardens, in which plants were planted in symmetrical arrangements with descriptions in the form of technical, botanical signatures, through herbariums in the form of codes, showcases, drawers, to loose boards serving as scientific and educational aids. The basis for the analysis of this problem are images showing old collections – especially those depicting cabinets of curiosities, such as the Ferrante Imperato collection.
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The study addresses the issue of the image of gardens recorded in the diaries and correspondence of noblemen and magnates from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth who went on educational trips around Europe in the second half of the 17th century. In the Baroque era, garden art undoubtedly flourished, and visiting palaces and gardens throughout Europe was part of the grand tour program and one of the most important goals of similar trips. According to the concept of such journeys, noble young men not only attended classes at prestigious academies in Paris and Rome, learned foreign languages, music and fencing, but also visited noteworthy manors, residences, palaces and the most magnificent gardens throughout Europe. At each stage of the educational journey, travelers visited palace gardens, orangeries, parks and university gardens, and recorded their impressions on the pages of their travel notebooks.For travelers, the gardens were a space for idyllic rest, recreation and social contacts, at the same time providing aesthetic values and emphasizing the prestige of the residence and the splendor of power; it was an important element of the residential complex and a place for presenting the collection. In the mid-17th century travel reports were dominated by impressions from Italian gardens, and only in the following decades did French garden art of the era of Louis XIV gradually take over. At the end of the century, travel records were dominated by Versailles and other dazzling creations by André Le Nôtre, full of elaborate quarters and sophisticated fountains. Reflection on travel accounts from the Baroque era allows us to better understand the perception of gardens by Polish noblemen and magnates, but it is also a valuable contribution to the cultural transfer taking place through travel. The visited gardens became a place to gain knowledge about flora, and during the voyage, exotic plants were purchased and experienced gardeners were engaged. Many years after returning from their journey, the once travelers used French or Italian patterns when arranging the gardens of their manors and palaces.
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A factory owner’s garden in Łódź is an interesting phenomenon compared to other 19th-century designs of a similar nature. It is distinguished by its specific location in the area of a factory town, among multi-functional buildings. Most private gardens were modeled on European designs, especially French and English that were fashionable at that time. Larger and more impressive gardens were established by specialized foreign gardening companies or specialists from outside the Kingdom of Poland, and later entrusted to the care of Polish gardeners.The gardens varied in size, equipment and plantings, but in most of them, in addition to the materials typical of European gardens, there were also features typical of the landscape of an industrial city. A specific view and background of the garden was the factory complex, including the huge spinning mill buildings standing next to the owner’s palace or villa. It also happened that in the garden itself, alleys or parts of flower beds were covered with brick or coal dust. The plants were also covered with factory dust, giving the garden a characteristic, slightly gloomy appearance. The landscape of the industrial city left its own mark on the gardens in Łódź.However, the proximity of factory complexes, resulted in some benefits, such as the availability of heating needed in greenhouses and conservatories, local water supply (pumping stations and hydrophores), which facilitated the implementation of a representative and more decorative program of Łódź gardens. Above all, income from industrial activities provided financial resources to establish and maintain a high standard. Gazebos, fountains, sometimes even tufa caves and stages were built there, and the utility program was sometimes enriched with larger water reservoirs. Special species of trees and shrubs were imported. Next to them there were impressive seasonal plants, including, for example, orange trees displayed in pots in the summer. The above-mentioned elements and many others created the specific and unique atmosphere of residential gardens in Łódź at the end of the 19th century.How important a role the garden played in the residence of a Łódź factory owner, can be proven by the fact that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, two Garden Exhibitions were organized in Łódź. Numerous descriptions of the garden compositions, small architectural objects and equipment of Łódź gardens presented at that time constitute today a testimony to the preferences and ambitions of the bourgeois and convey knowledge about the image of Lodzermensch’s garden.
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The Russian aggression against Ukraine involves extensive use of air power, proving that without the sufficient level of air control, the combat operations on the ground face significant operational challenges. The use of air power raises questions regarding the legality of the aerial actions conducted over Ukraine. This conflict in the air domain is characterised by separate campaigns. The first one was a battle over the air superiority of Ukraine, which was relatively short in time (February–April 2022), albeit intense, and lost by the Russian Air Force due to the inability to destroy Ukrainian air defence assets and Ukrainian military aviation. The second one, still in progress at the moment this article is being written, looks to become an unresolved contest of attrition, as both belligerents vastly increased their air disruption capabilities. In particular, during the last period of the first phase, it is believed that many of the Russian air strikes were, in fact, indiscriminate or deliberately directed against civilian objectives. The aim of the article is to analyse the overall conduct of the air war over Ukraine and pinpoint the legal challenges in assessing the legality of such air operations. In the context of available information, the paper will seek to understand the legal framework concerning the destruction of the An-225 at the Hostomel airport during the first phase of hostilities, the use of certain aerial weapons, and the selection of targets.
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The Russo-Ukrainian War is one of the largest – and probably the most intensive – conflicts of the last several decades. Fought between large, regular, and well-equipped forces of two sides, it naturally provides an extremely wide scope of materials for analysis as to the functioning of ius in bello. At the current stage, however, the evidence is often piecemeal and unclear, particularly taking into consideration the lack of access to documents and to Russian materials. While there is a significant body of evidence to indicate serious violations of humanitarian law, including indiscriminate or deliberate attacks on civilian targets, a detailed analysis requires taking into consideration a broader scope of circumstances which at this point are unclear. One of areas where we have strong evidence, if based on a sample, is the issue of the treatment of the prisoners of war. In general, the initial information seems to indicate widespread and systematic violations of humanitarian law during the conflict.
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The paper tracks challenges to litigating (direct and indirect) imports of military equipment to Russia and Russia’s subsequent international humanitarian law of armed conflicts (IHL) violations committed in indiscriminate attacks in Ukraine. It asks whether arms export control is capable of preventing or mitigating the results of indiscriminate attacks in Ukraine. It is assumed that IHL compliance can be complemented by preventing military equipment from being delivered to recipients when there is a risk of serious IHL violations being committed with that equipment. By comparing arms transfers from Iran with other controversial arms exports, the paper examines if increased protection for IHL ensued by arms export control laws can remedy deficiencies in arms transfer decisions that do not account for IHL. If an answer is negative, corporate due diligence will perform a complementary role in respecting IHL when state authorisation for arms transfer fails to account for IHL.
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