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The problem of the genesis of the Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture is investigated on the basis of comparative study of its pottery and different ceramic traditions of the Balkan-Carpathian region. The detailed analysis of morphological and stylistic traits of the Precucuteni–Tripolye A ceramic assemblage in relation to other cultural groups allows to partially reconsider the process of formation of the culture. The initial territory of the Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture was the southwest Transylvania. It is probable that the bearers of the Precucuteni 1 cultural traditions sufficiently quickly penetrated along the Mureş River the southeast Transylvania and further occupied Moldova which became the place of the final formation of the Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture. It can be supposed that it was the third wave of migration to the east whereas the first two were connected with Criş and LBK cultures. The Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture is distinguished by a multi-component structure which was formed in the course of the settling of its bearers. Although the Precucuteni–Tripolye A ceramic assemblage has its specific traits which are characteristic of precisely this culture one can clearly discern origins of many elements conditioned by western impulses, especially from the Vinča cultural area and related cultural groups. It may be stated that Vinča influence was both direct and indirect, through other close cultural types. Precisely this influence represents the most important genetic impact for the Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture. According to the author’s opinion the role of such cultures as Boian and LBK in the formation of the Precucuteni–Tripolye A culture is beyond any doubts but to some extent exaggerated in previous studies.
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1. Relations between the Globular Amphora culture (GAC) and the Tripolye culture (TC) stage CII have most frequently been assessed on the basis on the appearance of material from the both cultures in the same sites, which has been regarded as confirmation that the two cultures were contemporary to one another (e.g. Passek 1949, Sveshnikov 1983).2. Only now we have possibilities to discuss the given problem on the basis of the absolute chronology. A collaboration of Ukrainian and Polish archaeologists and a special research program (Klochko, Kośko, Szmyt 1999) gave us a rich series of radiocarbon dates for the both cultures. Including earlier radiocarbon analyses (Telegin 1985, Patokova et al. 1989, Wechler 1994) we have now a series of 46 dates concerning stage CII of the TC (Videiko 1999). A joint calibration of all the dates marks out the interval of 3240-2580 cal BC. For GAC assemblages (most frequently graves) from Volhynia and Podolia we have 12 dates. They mark out the interval of 2840-2480 cal BC. However it is more plausible to have it expanded to 3000/2950-2400/2350 cal BC (Szmyt 1999).3. A spatial analysis of the series of 14C datings point out, that settlement structures of the both cultures could exist contemporary, in particular in Podolia and probably in Volhynia.4. Despite this, there is no such spectacular evidence of the links between the GAC and the TC groups as there is of the contacts between the latter and the Funnel Beaker culture (e.g. Ścibior 1993, 1994). In the case of the TC, this evidence is limited principally to the application of the GAC motifs in the ceramic production, with the preservation of ‘Tripolye’ technological principles. Such fragments have been recorded in Gorodsk, Kasperivtsy (Gordinesti) and Sofievka groups (Movsha 1985, Kadrow, Kośko, Videiko 1995, Szmyt 1999, Videiko 2000). Within the GAC groups (eastern and central), the surest evidence of links with the TC one can also found in the ceramic production (a painted pottery).5. Some interesting features providing a link to the GAC can be found in the Steppe zone, in structures of the so-called Steppe Eneolithic. It must be said here, that there are no ‘autonomous’ GAC settlement, but some patterns (e.g. forms of vessels and graves) appear in the context of Steppe groups, especially Zhivotilovka-Volchansk group (Rassamakin 1996, 1999, Szmyt 1999). From my point of view, of primary importance is the nature of these groups. Heterogenous and changeable, they represented different cultures and taxa. On the one hand, in assemblages linked to the Zhivotilovka-Volchansk group, several components can be distinguished: Balkano-Danube, Late Tripolye, Steppe, Caucasian and Central European (Rassamakin 1996). On the other hand, it is difficult to find two identical configurations of traits within its range.6. I propose a hypothesis, that the Kasperivtsy (Gordinesti) group societies had already prior to 2900 cal BC begun to penetrate steppes and their activities were intensified by the entering of GAC populations into Podolia about 2900-2850 cal BC. These population movements included also small groups of GAC representatives. Thus, owing to the network of links between forest-steppe and steppe societies established earlier, ‘merged’ into moving heterogenous groups of people, representatives of the GAC could reach areas of the steppe distant from their oecumene. The question if their appearance in those areas became an impulse for the transformations that ended in the e.g. Kemi-Oba culture must remain an object of further study.
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Production-economic complex was studied in 2000 at the Tripolye settlement in the vicinity of the village of Nezamozhnik (beginning of the stage CI). It consisted of several objects, disposed along waterside slope in the northeastern outskirts of the settlement. There are two dugouts one of which was overlaid by surface adobe construction and a burning stove. Discovery of new complex presumably related to production of pottery provides unique information about different aspects of life of population of the Eneolithic epoch. Data on various house-building methods allow answering basic questions provoked by sharp discussion on problems of Tripolye house-building practice. There are grounds to suppose existence of new earlier unknown type of burning stoves with underlying pit. Some observations on interesting details of cult rites were made as well. Construction and intensive exploitation of such complex burning structures as stove from Nezamozhnik allows to trace the process of separation of handicrafts into independent branches.
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Data obtained as a result of laboratory study witness to high level of professional skills of ancient builders. High-quality building materials were used for construction of kiln; various compositions of were applied in dependence on different purposes. Variability of technologies of construction and application, as well as special building designer methods are evidenced. It is very likely that so-called «construction plates» for structures were preliminary burned. The rest of materials were shaped and burned on place.Conducted study of fragments of pottery testifies careful selection of primary raw materials and high level of its consequent processing. Tripolye potters developed the technique of moderate- and high temperature burning; they were able to curate the chemical-technological processes and were perfect artisans of aesthetic preparation of pottery.
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In the article one of the bright cultural elements of the steppe tribes of Eastern Europe is observed. It is antropomorphic stone sculptures. Tools, labour input, sex and age of the buried are being observed. There is an attempt the reconstruct the semantics of stone antropomorphic sculpture, its place in the burial ritual, social life and status of the buried. The authors supposes that the people who were buried with stone sculptures had to do with magic and worship.
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The article presents and considers new radiocarbon dates made in the Kiev laboratory for the Neolithic Surskaya and Bug-Dniestr cultures as well as Eneolithic Tripolye A and BI cultures. Four dates from two sites of the Surskaya culture place its late phase in the interval between the end of the VII – first quarter of the VI mill. BC. Seventeen samples were analyzed for different phases of the Bug-Dniestr culture. They demonstrated very long duration of the culture for c. 1000 years between the middle of the VII – middle of the VI mill. BC. A half of this period is related to the latest Savran phase whereas duration other phases does not exceed 100-150 years. Fifteen dates from nine settlements were obtained for the Tripolye A culture, which date the beginning of the culture much earlier than existing radiocarbon dating (middle of the VI mill. BC.). The final sites of the culture are dated to the end of the V mill. BC. Radiocarbon dates for the Cucuteni A–Tripolye BI culture in general correspond data obtained earlier and place the culture from the beginning of the 2nd to end of the 3d quarters of the V mill. BC.
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The article is devoted to the publication of the late Neolithic cemetery situated near stanitsa Staronizhesteblievskaya (Krasnoarmeysky district, Krasnodar territory). The site represents a flat burial ground which was accidentally covered by a tumulus of the Early Bronze Age. The cemetery consisted of 5 graves. Four graves were individual and one was collective. All of the deceased were interred in supine position with legs flexed and oriented with their heads to north or south. The grave goods included long flint blades and other tools, plates of boar tusk as well as beads of red deer teeth, bone and shell. The burial rite has parallels among cemeteries of the Novodanilovka type whereas the grave inventory finds parallels in the sites of the Mariupol type. According to these attributes the cemetery in question can be attributed to the late period of the Nizhnedonskaya culture.
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The article is devoted to the problem of the cultural-genetic and chronological sequence in the Northeast Balkans during the final Copper Age and in the beginning of the Bronze Age exemplified by the development of ceramic assemblages. There is considered the material of four cultural units: Cernavoda I, Cernavoda III, Khotnitsa, and Brăteşti cultures. The study is based on the comparative analysis of spatial and chronological distribution of three main categories of ceramic attributes: technological, morphological and stylistic.The detailed comparison of these traits makes it possible to clarify the genetic sequence and cultural interrelations in the region under discussion. First of all, three basic trends in the pottery evolution are traced. One of them is connected with the Cernavoda I and Khotnitsa assemblages and shows a growing diversity of all discussed categories to the end of these cultures. The Cernavoda III pottery seems to demonstrate a stable state of the culture, which is distinguished by a relatively restricted number of technological groups, morphological and stylistic types. A peculiar model of development is represented by the ceramics of the Brăteşti group, which has an extremely low level of variety and obviously isolated character.According to the degree of similarity or divergence between different ceramic traditions two parallel and independent genetic lines in the Northeast Balkans can be recognized. The first sequence embraces the Khotnitsa and Cernavoda III cultures the former being older and the latter younger. This line mainly originates in the Central Balkan cultural milieu (Telish-Sălcuţa IV culture) with some later impulses from the Carpathian Basin (Boleráz culture). The second sequence leads from the Cernavoda I culture probably to the Cernavoda II culture. This line is based on radically transformed Gumelniţa traditions combined with strong influences from the Cucuteni-Tripolye area. A separate development line is represented by the Brăteşti group, which has to correspond the situation of a full cultural stagnation.
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The «Land of Cities » is a special name to designate a small territory of c. 70.000 km2 which is located east of the Southern Urals and has clear spatial and temporal boundaries (the first quarter of the II mill. BC). The «Land» has existed for about 150-200 years. It is characterized by large fortified settlement centers of the proto-urban type with complicated layout and original architectural style as well as by sophisticated burial rite and other elements of material and spiritual culture.Three periods can be discerned in the development of the «The Land of Cities». It is in the first period that the culture appears on the multi-component basis which included local Trans-Urals traditions, penetration of Abashevo and Poltavka cultures as well as influence of southern agricultural civilizations. The period is distinguished by the emergence of the first oval fortified settlements, crystallization of main mortuary traits, introducing of complex agricultural-stockbreeding economy, developing of Trans-Urals copper ores, etc. The middle or classical period is characterized by large ring political centers and cemeteries with complex settlement and funeral architecture, formation of clearly outlined «territorial provinces», intensive exploitation of copper deposits and active military expansion. The third period demonstrates the simplification and degradation of leading cultural traits in settlement, funeral and religious domains.According to its achievements the Southern Trans-Urals can be considered as a primeval center of cultural genesis in the Middle Bronze Age wherein original model of social structures and new forms of productive economy were developed. Advanced cultural, political and ethnical potential concentrated within the «The Land of Cities» provoked a broad colonization of the steppe territories and gave important impulse to the development of later Bronze Age cultures in Eurasia.
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The article is devoted to the origin and spreading of rare ceramic «chess» ornament. This decoration appears around the Volga and Ural regions in the second part of the Middle Bronze Age. The «chess» motives consist of three types described below. Key type is formed from the rhombuses, which were spread with different «chess» ornaments together. Phatyanovo-Balanovo groups were the center of mentioned ornaments. It proves that the distribution of these ornaments took place through the forest and northern part of forest-steppe regions of Europe and originally were connected with central and western European traditions. Firstly (The Stone Age) the bone is seemed to be decorated by discussing style. Steppe cultures do not have «chess» ornament. Abashevskaya (the Urals), Sintashta and Potapovo cultures demonstrate the evolution and changes of this ornament. During the first part of Late Bronze Age rhombus and «chess» ornament was concentrated in the Ural region (Aakul and Srubnaya cultures). Later we can see almost the same compositions on the samus-kizhirovskiy type of celts spread in western Siberia. The analysis of this type of ornament confirms certain connections between steppe and forest- cultures of Eastern Europe during the MBA. The transitional period from MBA to LBA demonstrates development of contacts.
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The article deals with the use-wear study of 95 shield-shaped and 13 channeled cheek-pieces: the data received on 244 cheek-pieces. In some cases it is impossible to determine the number of tenons on the cheek-pieces though the reconstruction of cheek-pieces position in the bridle gave an opportunity to think of not less then 3 tenons.In use-wear analysis of the well-known cheek-pieces from Balanbash (fig.1, 1) showed that the first cheek-piece had 4 tenons. The same number had the first cheek-pieces from Kamenka (fig.1, 2).Some cheek-pieces described in the special literature are considered to have two tenons (Berlik, mount 10, b.1; Sintashta, b.30; Krivoe Ozero, mount 9 b.2). The use-wear analysis proves that there were 4 tenons on those cheek-pieces. Thus having 2 tenons all of the shield-shaped cheek-pieces really have 3 or 4 tenons. It is more difficult to deal with three cheek-pieces that really have 3 tenons (Krivoe Ozero, mount 1 b.3; Stepnoy-VII). The author suggest that there should be reconstructed a binding of these cheek-pieces.Conclusion: 2 tenons on the shield-shaped cheek-pieces are not functional, there must be not less than 3 of them. This fact must be taken into account when reconstructing the fragments of the cheek-pieces and making any typology of the shield-shaper cheek-pieces.
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The article is devoted to results of research of tumulus cemetery Diviziya II in the seaside part of Budzhak in 1986. In eight barrows there were investigated 48 graves of various cultures of the Eneolithic – Bronze Age (Yamnaya, Catacomb, Mnogovalikovaya and Sabatinovka), the Scythian time (4-th – 3-th centuries B.C.) and late Middle Ages. New materials comprehensively show specificity of cultural-historical processes in the steppe Northwest Black Sea region from the end of 3-th millennium B.C. till 12-th century A.D.
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The article publishes dedicative inscriptions of the Olbian officials in I-II cc. AD. The article also suggests that members of Olbian councils would not always improve their career growth by rising from step to step. It is also unclear whether it was the law or an old venerated tradition in Olbia that determined strict order of replacements in magistrate’s offices.
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The article is devoted to the publication of Bronze Age material from coastal zone of the Dnestr estuary. It contains the description, cultural and chronological attribution of finds discovered on the excavation of the antic town of Niconium as well as the presentation of a number of stray finds. The most interesting finds are a stone pestle of the Middle Bronze Age from Niconium as well as two bronze daggers from Nikolaevka and Salgany. The first of them is dated to the period of the late Pit-grave culture whereas the second one belongs to the Sabatinovka culture of the Late Bronze Age.
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Several bronze objects are published in the article. The earliest of them is a socketed axe from Bender found in 1991 (fig. 1: 1). It belongs to the Kolontaevskiy type and can be dated to the Catacomb culture of the Early Bronze Age. Two other objects are celts-adzes (fig. 1: 2,3) of unknown provenance which can be related to the Sabatinovka or Belozerka cultures of the Late Bronze Age or the beginning of the Early Iron Age. Such celts are broadly distributed in the Carpathian-Balkan and North Pontic regions. The last find also unknown provenance is a celt (fig. 1: 4). The object finds the best parallels in the Ananevskaya culture of the Volga-Kama interfluves. Similar celts were unknown in the Carpathian-Dnestr region so far. It is possible that the museum obtained this find from a visitant collector from the Volga-Ural area.
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The studying of the Sabatinovka culture is accompanied with a long and continuous succession of contradictions. In the 20-s years V.A. Gorodtsov marked an originality of the North Pontic antiquities and allocated here «the Cimmerian culture» distinct from the Srubnaya culture. The metal artifacts of the Late Bronze Age were included in the former. In the 30-40-s years the sites of this period including Sabatinovka settlement were referred also to it. These conclusions were not completely taken into consideration by O.A. Krivtsova-Grakova - she has allocated «the Sabatinovka stage of the Srubnaya culture». There were not bases for such correlations, but her conclusion was accepted. As a matter of fact such an inference have deprived the Sabatinovka culture its own historiography. The negative results of this event are visible so far. They are reflected both in the chronological and historical interpretations of the Sabatinovka culture as a whole as well as concern an estimation of metalworking of the Late Bronze Age in the North Pontic area.
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The article discusses various problems related to archaeozoological studies. First of all the author defines the object and subject of the archaeozoology as an individual discipline. The object is peculiarities of stockbreeding and hunting of ancient population within a territory or bearers of a concrete archaeological culture whereas the subject is the reconstruction of palaeoeconomy of ancient societies as well as primeval natural environment and landscape. Special attention is given to the problem of selection of faunal remains from the cultural layer of a site. All animal bones must be taken separately from each layer of multi-layer sites or from isolated sealed structures. In the case of a single-layer settlement with a short-term existence the samples can be gathered summarily. Additionally, the author considers the merits and demerits of such analytical method as the minimum number of individuals index (MNI). The author is convinced that despite some disadvantages the method can be applied to archaeozoological studies due to its relatively high efficiency and accuracy. Currently, it is used by many archaozoologists, and this circumstance makes it possible to compare material from different sites and regions.
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In the monograph by Prof. N.V. Ryndina the most urgent problems of ancient metalworking are raised and solved, among them the origin and provenance of metallurgy, metalworking, organization of manufacturing on the earliest stages of its development. The book is characterized by numerous original databases accumulated and processed by the author. Many analytical methods were applied to reveal the reliable information on ancient technology of copper-casting and processing, the peculiarities of the earliest artisans’ skill are described.
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